What are the main causes of lithium battery explosions?

Lithium batteries explode, a perception many people have when talking about lithium-ion batteries. In recent years, many news have reported on lithium battery safety issues. So why do lithium batteries explode? What are the main causes of lithium battery explosions?

The following summarizes ten reasons why batteries explode:

1. There is too much positive electrode during design, or the coating is uneven. Vibration during transportation causes the pole piece to be misaligned, and lithium dendrites appear during charging.

2. Vibration during transportation causes the pole pieces to be dislocated, causing a short circuit through the shell or connecting piece when the electrode expands.

3. Burrs and dust, vibration and expansion cause the diaphragm to short circuit.

4. Excessive power during welding may damage the internal outer diaphragm or increase metal dust.

5. The voltage and temperature during transportation cause instability of the SEI layer.

6. Overcharging. When the battery cell is overcharged, the excessive release of lithium from the positive electrode will cause the structure of the positive electrode to change. Too much released lithium will easily fail to be inserted into the negative electrode, and it will also easily cause lithium precipitation on the surface of the negative electrode. Moreover, when the voltage reaches overcharge voltage, The electrolyte will decompose to produce a large amount of gas

7. The moisture content is too high. Moisture can react with the electrolyte in the battery core to produce gas. During charging, it can react with the generated lithium to generate lithium oxide, which will cause the capacity of the battery core to be lost. It is easy to overcharge the battery core and generate gas. The decomposition of water The voltage is low and it is easy to decompose to generate gas during charging. When this series of generated gases increases the internal pressure of the battery core, when the outer shell of the battery core cannot withstand it, the battery core will explode.

8. The negative electrode capacity is insufficient. When the capacity of the negative electrode opposite the positive electrode is insufficient, or has no capacity at all, part or all of the lithium produced during charging cannot be inserted into the interlayer structure of the negative electrode graphite, and will precipitate on the surface of the negative electrode, forming protruding "branches" When charging next time, this protruding part is more likely to cause the precipitation of lithium. After dozens to hundreds of cycles of charge and discharge, the "dendrites" will grow and eventually pierce the separator paper, causing an internal short circuit. .

9. Internal short circuit. Due to the internal short circuit phenomenon, the battery core is discharged with a large current, generating a large amount of heat, burning the diaphragm, and causing a larger short circuit phenomenon. In this way, the battery core will generate high temperature, causing the electrolyte to decompose into gas, causing excessive internal pressure. When the outer casing of the battery core cannot withstand this pressure, the battery core will explode.

10. External short circuit. External short circuit may be caused by improper operation or misuse. Due to external short circuit, the battery discharge current is very large, which will cause the battery core to heat up. The high temperature will cause the diaphragm inside the battery core to shrink or be completely damaged, causing an internal short circuit and thus explosion. .

All of the above are the reasons for the explosion of lithium battery packs. Of course, there are many factors that affect the safety of lithium batteries, such as the use of inferior batteries, irregular packaging processes, improper use by users, etc., which will cause certain safety problems. I hope relevant practitioners will improve Technology and detection capabilities. Users should also pay attention during use. Of course, the more important thing is to choose reliable lithium battery products and suppliers. Solid-state batteries will be a good choice. The liquid electrolyte, the source of battery fires, is replaced by solid-state batteries to eliminate battery safety hazards from the source. It can pass acupuncture tests and will not catch fire or explode

Government has approved the Market Development Assistance (MDA) @ ₹ 1,500/MT to promote organic fertilizers

 

Government has approved the Market Development Assistance (MDA) @ ₹ 1,500/MT to promote organic fertilizers

Posted On: 26 JUL 2024 2:51PM by PIB Delhi

Long term fertilizer experiment conducted by Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) at Ludhiana revealed that integrated nutrient management practices maintained the soil fertility status (organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium with improved biological activity), and that imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers resulted in decrease in soil fertility.

Further, studies on rice-wheat system with integrated nutrient management for 30 years in Punjab indicated no negative effect on soil organic carbon, available nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).  As such, there is no harmful effect of fertilizers on soil fertility, if applied in a balanced and judicious manner.

The fertility of soil is lost in certain situations mainly due to the imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers coupled with low use of organic manures.

Additionally, Indian Council of Agriculture & Research (ICAR) furnished the following details:

The nitrogen use efficiency of nitrogenous fertilizers varies between 30-50% depending on soil type and crop grown. Remaining nitrogen is lost mainly by way of nitrate leaching (causing nitrate contamination in ground water above the permissible limit of 10 mg NO3-N /L).

Thus, ICAR is recommending soil test based balanced and integrated nutrient management practices through conjunctive use of both inorganic and organic sources (compost, bio-fertilizers, green manure etc.), split application and placement of nitrogenous fertilizers, use of slow releasing N-fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors and use of neem coated urea etc. to avoid such situation.

Government is implementing dedicated schemes for promotion of organic farming in the country viz. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Mission Organic Value Chain Development in North East Region (MOVCDNER) since 2015-16. Under these schemes, farmers are encouraged to take up organic cultivation using organic inputs and the schemes provide end to end support to farmers’   i.e.  from production to marketing of organic produce. Hands-on training to farmers about on-farm production of organic fertilizers and its use are integral part of these schemes. Farmers are provided a subsidy of Rs 15000/ ha / 3 years under PKVY and 15000/ ha/ 3 years under MOVCDNER for various organic inputs including bio-fertilizers and organic manure.

Further, the Government has approved the Market Development Assistance (MDA) @ ₹ 1,500/MT to promote organic fertilizers i.e., manure produced at plants under GOBARdhan initiative covering different biogas/CBG support schemes/programmes of stakeholders Ministries/ Departments at the total outlay of₹1,451.84 crore (FY 2023-24 to 2025-26), which includes a corpus of ₹ 360 crore for research gap funding etc.

The PM-PRANAM initiative aims to complement the efforts initiated by States/UTs to save the health of Mother Earth by promoting sustainable and balanced use of fertilizers, adopting alternate fertilizers, promoting organic & natural farming etc.

This information was given by the Minister of State for Chemicals and Fertilizers Smt Anupriya Patel in Lok Sabha in reply to a question today.

Impact of climate change on agriculture

 Impact of climate change on agriculture

Posted On: 26 JUL 2024 2:40PM by PIB Delhi

National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), a network project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) conducted an assessment to evaluate the impact of climate change on agriculture. ICAR assessed risk and vulnerability of 573 out of 651 predominantly agricultural districts as per Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) protocols. A total of 109 districts are categorized as ‘very highly’ and 201 districts as ‘highly’ vulnerable.

Integrated computer simulation modelling studies revealed that, in the absence of adoption of adaptation measures, climate change projections are likely to reduce rainfed rice yields by 20% in 2050 and 47% in 2080 scenarios while, irrigated rice yields by 3.5% in 2050 and 5% in 2080 scenarios, wheat yield by 19.3% in 2050 and 40% in 2080 scenarios, kharif maize yields by 18 to 23% in 2050 and 2080 scenarios, respectively. Soybean yields are projected to increase by 3-10% in 2030 and 14% in 2080 scenarios.

Adaptation measures have been taken to mitigate the impact of climate change on agriculture in 448 villages in 151 climatically vulnerable districts, where demonstration of climate resilient technologies viz. climate resilient varieties; direct seeded rice (DSR); efficient irrigation systems; nitrogen application as per soil health card and leaf colour charts; avoiding crop residue burning, crop residue recycling into soil; replacing fossil fuels with biogas and vermicomposting; reducing methane emissions from livestocks through improved fodder management systems and community fodder bank; agroforestry systems as carbon sinks and zero till drill wheat to escape terminal heat stress were conducted. Prepared and implemented the District Agricultural Contingency Plan (DACP) in 651 agriculturally important Districts of the country.

To support the farmers in adopting climate resilient agriculture practices Government is implementing National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) to deal with the impact of climate change on agriculture. NMSA has three major components i.e. Rainfed Area Development (RAD); On Farm Water Management (OFWM); and Soil Health Management (SHM). Subsequently, new programmes namely Soil Health Card (SHC), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Mission Organic Value Chain Development in North Eastern Region (MOVCDNER), Per Drop More Crop, National Bamboo Mission (NBM) etc. are also included. The Mission aims at evolving and implementing adaptation and mitigation practices across the country to make the agriculture climate resilient to the changing climate.

This information was given by the Union Minister for Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare Shri Shivraj Singh Chouhan in a written reply in Rajya Sabha today.

PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT UNDER SBM 2.0

Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs

PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT UNDER SBM 2.0

Posted On: 25 JUL 2024 5:48PM by PIB Delhi

Swachh Bharat Mission-Urban (SBM-U) 2.0 lays special emphasis on reduction of plastic waste generation and compliance of Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Rules dated 12.08.2021. Key focus areas include source segregation of waste; segregated collection and transportation; processing of segregated waste; setting up of Material Recovery Facility (MRF) in all ULBs; awareness generation drives etc. In addition, the

following initiatives have been taken:

 (i). Additional Central Assistance (ACA) to States and Union Territories (UTs) is released for establishing Solid Waste Management (SWM) projects for processing of all kinds of waste,

(ii). A ‘Plastic Waste Management Advisory’ has been developed capturing the plastic waste generation, plastic waste management rules and various ways to manage plastic waste through reduce, reuse, recycle and recovery techniques;

(iii). ‘Swachh Survekshan’ and ‘Star Rating Protocol’ have been introduced which have been aligned with Plastic Waste Management (amendment) Rules 2021 to encourage cities to phase out single-use plastic, etc.

Ministry of Environment & Forests and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) notified Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021, on 12th August 2021, which prohibits identified single use plastic items, which have low utility and high littering potential with effect from 1st July, 2022.

MoEF&CC has notified the Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic packaging vide Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022, on 16th February 2022 and Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2024, on 14th March, 2024. 

All States/UTs have constituted the Special Task Force (STF) under the chairpersonship of the Chief Secretary / Administrator for elimination of identified single use plastic items and effective plastic waste management and development of comprehensive action plan in this regard. A National Level Taskforce has also been constituted by the Ministry for taking coordinated efforts to eliminate identified single use plastic items and effective implementation of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016.

For effective monitoring of ban on identified single use plastic (SUP) items and plastic waste management in the country, online platforms that are in operation are National Dashboard on elimination of single use plastics and effective plastic waste management; Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Monitoring Module for Compliance on Elimination of Single Use Plastic and CPCB Grievance Redressal App.

Regular enforcement drives have been undertaken by CPCB, State Pollution Control Board (SPCBs)/ Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) to implement ban on identified single use plastic items and on plastic carry bags having thickness less than one hundred twenty microns. 

To develop alternatives to single use plastics, the MoEF&CC organized “India Plastic Challenge – Hackathon 2021”. Two Start-ups in the area of alternatives to single use plastics were awarded in the India Plastic Challenge Hackathon 2021. A National Expo on Eco-Alternatives to single use plastic and Startup Conference was organized on 26th and 27th September, 2022 in Chennai by MoEF&CC and Government of Tamil Nadu in which more than 150 manufacturers of eco-alternatives from across the country have participated. The eco-alternatives included material made from sea-weed, bagasse, rice and wheat bran, rice stubble, plant and agricultural residue, banana and areca leaves, jute and cloth.   The list of manufacturers of eco-alternatives is available on National Dashboard https://suppwmdashboard.in/ on elimination of single use plastics and effective plastic waste management.

This information was given by the Minister of State for Housing and Urban Affairs, Shri Tokhan Sahu, in a written reply in the Lok Sabha Today.

Strategies to reduce air pollution

 

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Strategies to reduce air pollution

Posted On: 25 JUL 2024 1:35PM by PIB Delhi

The report “World Air Quality Report 2023 – Region & City PM2.5 ranking” used most of the data from low-cost sensors (LCS) which are not used by countries for regulatory purposes. Further, the method of measurement and instruments used differ from country to country. The data from a variety of monitors and data sources may have a degree of error /uncertainty. Therefore, ranking of countries/cities for pollution levels may not be appropriate.

MoEF&CC conducts Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan - ranking of 131 cities covered under National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) among three groups categorised based on population. Delhi ranked ‘9’ in the group of 47 cities having population more than 10 lakh for taking air quality improvement measures under NCAP.

Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) launched NCAP in January 2019, which is a long-term, time-bound national level strategy for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. Under NCAP, it has been envisaged to achieve targets of 20 to 30% reduction in Particulate Matter (PM) concentrations by 2024 in 131 cities of 24 States/UTs with respect to base year 2017. Subsequently, the target has been revised to achieve up to 40% reduction or achieve National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in terms of PM concentrations by 2025-26. Cities are provided with funds to support implementation of City Action Plans for taking measures to improve air quality. All 131 cities/ULBs have prepared the City Action Plans under NCAP.

Under NCAP, an amount of Rs. 19,614.44 crores have been earmarked to 131 cities during the period FY 2019-20 till FY 2025-26 out of which 49 Million Plus Cities/Urban Agglomerations are funded under XVth Finance Commission air quality grant and remaining 82 cities are funded by MoEF&CC under Control of Pollution Scheme. So far, an amount of Rs. 11,211.13 crores were released to 131 cities to implement City Action Plans in their respective cities.

95 cities out of 131 cities have shown improvement in air quality in terms of annual PM10 concentrations in FY 2023-24 with respect to the baseline of FY 2017-18. 18 cities have met NAAQS for PM10 (60 µg/m3) in FY 2023-24.

Further, steps taken by Government to improve the air quality are enclosed as Annexure-I.

Annexure - I

National Clean Air Programme:

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) has been launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in January 2019 with an aim to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million Plus Cities) in 24 States by engaging all stakeholders.
• NCAP envisages reduction by 20-30% in PM concentration over baseline in year 2017 by 2024. Target has been revised to achieve reduction in PM10 level up to 40% or achievement of national standards (60 µg/m3) by 2025-26.
• City Action Plans (CAPs) have been prepared by all 131 cities and being implemented by Urban Local Bodies.
• The city specific clean air action plans target city specific air polluting sources like Soil & Road Dust, Vehicles, Domestic Fuel, MSW Burning, Construction Material and Industries.
• Performance based financial support is provided to these131 cities for implementation of activities of City Action Plan.
• Further, funding for implementation of CAPs is mobilised through convergence of resources from various schemes of Central Government such as Swachh Bharat Mission SBM (Urban), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Smart City Mission, Sustainable Alternative towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME-II), Nagar Van Yojna, etc. and resources from State/UT Governments and its agencies such as Municipal Corporation, Urban Development authorities and Industrial development authorities etc.
• Public Grievance Redressal Portal (PGRP)/helpline have been developed by all 131 cities to address public complaints of air pollution in timely manner.
• Emergency Response System (ERS/ GRAP) have been developed by all 131cities for taking action in air emergencies
• Under NCAP, an amount of Rs. 19,614.44 crores has been earmarked to 131 cities during the period FY 2019-20 till FY 2025-26 out of which 49 Million Plus Cities/Urban Agglomerations are funded under XVth Finance Commission air quality grant and remaining 82 cities are funded by MoEF&CC under Control of Pollution Scheme. So far, an amount of Rs. 11,211.13 crores was released to 131 cities to implement City Action Plans in their respective cities.
• 95 cities out of 131 cities have shown improvement in air quality in terms of annual PM10 concentrations in FY 2023-24 with respect to the baseline of FY 2017-18. 18 cities have met National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM10 (60 µg/m3) in FY 2023-24.

 

Other steps

• Notification of Ambient Air Quality Standards.
• Revision of emission standards for industrial sectors from time to time.
• Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air quality.
• Introduction of cleaner/alternate fuels like gases fuel (CNG, LPG, etc.).
• Promotion of ethanol blending.
• Launching of National Air Quality Index.
• Leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI fuel standards.
• Introduction of BS VI compliant vehicles across the country since April, 2020.
• Notification of Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules.
• Installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by major industries.
• Notification of Graded Response Action Plan for Delhi and National Capital Region (NCR).
• Constitution of Commission on Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) etc.
• Installation of Vapour Recovery System (VRS) in new and existing petrol pumps selling gasoline >100kl per month in million plus cities and those selling >300kl per month in cities with population between 1 lakh to 1 million.
• For strengthening monitoring mechanism and effective compliance through self-regulatory mechanism, CPCB directed all 17 categories of highly polluting industries to install Online Continuous Emission Monitoring System (OCEMS).
• Shifting of all operational brick kilns to zig-zag technology.

 

This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha today.

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Compulsory ban on polythene bags

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Compulsory ban on polythene bags

Posted On: 25 JUL 2024 1:34PM by PIB Delhi

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified the Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules, 2021, on 12th August 2021, prohibiting identified single use plastic items, which have low utility and high littering potential, with effect from 1st July  2022. The manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of plastic carry bags having thickness less than thickness of one hundred and twenty microns is also prohibited with effect from 31st December, 2022. Non-woven plastic carry bags of less than 60 gram per sqm (GSM) are also prohibited from 30th September 2021. Further, over and above the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016, as amended, States/UTs have issued notifications/orders to introduce regulations pertaining to complete or partial ban on plastic carry bags and/or identified single-use plastic items. The details are annexed.

The following steps have been taken to strengthen implementation of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016 and to implement ban on identified single use plastic items:

(i)        All thirty-six States/UTs have constituted the Special Task Force under the chairpersonship of the Chief Secretary / Administrator for elimination of identified single use plastic items and effective plastic waste management. A National Level Taskforce has also been constituted by the Ministry for taking coordinated efforts to eliminate identified single use plastic items and effective implementation of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016.

(ii)       Directions under Section 5 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 have already been issued to plastic raw material manufacturers for not supplying raw material for manufacture of banned single use plastic items and plastic carry bags having thickness less than thickness of one hundred and twenty microns.

(iii) For effective monitoring of ban on identified single use plastic items and plastic waste management the following online platforms are in operation (a) National Dashboard on for monitoring of comprehensive action plan implementation, (b) CPCB Monitoring Module for Compliance on Elimination of Single Use Plastic, and (c) CPCB Grievance Redressal App.

(iv)      Pan India enforcement campaigns have been undertaken for implementation of ban on identified single use plastic items since July 2022 by CPCB, SPCBs/PCCs and local authorities. As per available information, during enforcement campaigns, a total of 853832 inspections have been carried out, of which violations were detected in 344689 cases, approximately fine of Rs. 19,05,13,471/- was imposed and 19,49,535 kg. of plastic was seized.

(v)       States and Union Territories have been asked to undertake regular enforcement drives to implement ban on identified single use plastic items and on plastic carry bags having thickness less than one hundred twenty microns covering fruit and vegetable markets, wholesale markets, local markets, flower vendors, units manufacturing plastic carry bags etc.

(vi)      The Departments of Science and Technology and Biotechnology support research projects for alternatives to banned single-use plastic items, as per scheme guidelines. The Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises has schemes to provide support to MSME units, which include support to such units which were earlier involved in manufacturing of banned single use plastic items for switching over to alternatives / other products.

Annexure

Notification for banning manufacture, use, sale import and handling of Plastic carry bags/items

(Based on the data available in Annual reports submitted by SPCBs/PCCs)

S.

No

Name of   State/UT

Complete or Partial      

Ban

Executive order Date and No.

Remarks

1

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Complete ban

Date: 02.08.2010

 

Notification No.: 202

Complete ban on manufacture, store, import, distribution, transportation, recycle, sell & use of plastic

carrybags.

2

Andhra Pradesh

 

Not available

Certain Urban Local Bodies like Tadipatri, Vijayawada, Tirupati & Bobbili have put Ban on Plastic carry bags irrespective of their thickness. All local bodies have taken stand on ban on their  own.

3

Arunachal Pradesh

Partial ban

Date: 16.07.2019

 

Notification No.: FOR.129/E(A)/2019/1271 3-60

Complete ban on manufacture, store, stock, sale of plastic <50 microns.

4

Assam

 

Notification not available

 

5

Bihar

Complete ban

Date: 24.10.2018

Notifications No. 943

(urban)Dated 11.12.2018

Notification 1043

Complete ban on manufacture, store, import, distribution, transportation, recycle, sell & use of plastic carrybags (irrespective   

Of thickness)

6

Chandigarh

Complete ban

Notification No. ED/2019/1648

Dated 27.09.2019

Complete ban on manufacture, storage, import, sale, use transportation & disposal of plastic items

7

Chhattisgarh

Complete ban

Notification F 5-7/18/2011

Complete ban on manufacture, store,

 

 

 

dated 24.12.2014 (Gazette)

 

Date: 27-09-2017

Notification No.:क्रमाााांकएफ 05- 88/2014/32

import, transportation, recycle, sell & use of polythene/plastic carrybags.

 

Further for banned short life PVC and chlorinated plastic

8

Daman Diu & Dadra Nagar Haveli

Complete ban

Notification No.

PCC/DMN/PLASTIC

Bags/12-13/473

 

Dated 24.01.2014

Forbidding the use, sale/ storage of all kinds of plastic bags

9

Delhi

 

Information not available

No executive order additional to PWM Rules have been

issued

10

Goa

Complete ban

Amendment bill The Goa nob-biodegradable garbage

 

Dated :08.08.2019

Government imposed ban on Manufacture, stock, import, transportation, recycle, sale & use of plastic (carrybags, cups, forks, paper plates, spoons)

And other non-

biodegradable items.

11

Gujarat

 

Notification No: Vl,l(14/Env-10- 2008-2100-E

Dated2Sth June,

201 l

 

12

Haryana

Complete ban

Date: 20 Aug, 2013

Complete ban on manufacture, stock, import, transportation,

recycle, sell & use of plastic carrybags,

13

Himachal Pradesh

Complete Ban

 

Complete ban on use of Carrybags (irrespective of size), polythene, non- biodegradable material, disposable plastic cups, plates,

and glasses

14

Jammu & Kashmir

Partial ban

Notification: SRO-45 of 2017 dated :03.02.2017

Partial ban on Polyethene carry bags of thickness below 50 microns

15

Jharkhand

Complete Ban

Notification no 3/Praya Pradu- 52/2007- 3900

Dated 15.09.2017

Complete ban on manufacture, import, storage, transport, sell and usage of

plastic carrybags in

the whole State

16

Karnataka

Complete ban

Date: 11-03-2016

 

Notification No.: FEE 17EPC 2012, Bengalru

State government banned the plastic banners, buntings, carrybags (plastic & compostable), cups, cling films, flex, flags, plates, spoons & sheets made of plastic or Thermocol and

microbeads usage in the entire state

17

Kerala

Complete ban

Notification No.: G.O.(Ms)No.6/2019Env

dated 27-11-2019

 

G.O.(M/s) No. 2/2020/ENVT

dated 27-01-2020

 

GOno. GO(Ms) No. 4/2020

Envt dated 16-02-2020

Complete ban on Single use plastic And plastic carrybags (plastic and compostable )

18

Lakshadweep

Complete ban

Date: 25.01.2019

 

Notification No.: F.No.66/33/2019

Complete ban on Single use plastic includes:

Plastic carrybags of all thickness, plastic coated carry bags, plastic flags, plastic sheets/films used for wrapping, plastic sheets used as dining table covers, thermocol cups and plates, plastic coated paper cups and plates, plastic teacups, plastic tumblers, plastic teacups, water pouches/packets/PET plastic water bottles,

straws,

19

Madhya Pradesh

Complete ban

Notification : F5-2-2015-18-5 Dated :24.05.2017

Production, Storage, Transportation, sale & use of plastic carrybags.

20

Maharashtra

Complete Ban

No Plastic-2018/C.R.24/TC- 4

 

Notification, dated 23.3.2018

and amendment dated 11.4.2018, 30.6.2018 &

14.06.2019

complete

ban on certain plastic products like i) plastic bags with or without handle irrespective of size

and thickness, single use diposable items like

cups, plates, straws, spoons etc, Nonwoven Polypropylene

bags through Maharashtra Plastic and

Thermocol Products (Manufacture, Usage, Sale, Transport,

Handling and Storage)

21

Manipur

Complete ban

Date: 12-09-2017

 

Notification No.: 56/38/99- for&Envt

Complete ban on use, store & sale of plastic carrybags

22

Meghalaya

Partial ban

Date: 16-02-2017

 

Notification No. MPCB/TB- 144(B)/2016-2017/79

Use and sale of plastic bags less than 50 microns has been prohibited and public notice has been

issued

23

Mizoram

Partial ban

With effect from :01.08.2019 by Aizal municipal

corporation

Complete ban on plastic carry bags

below 50 microns

24

Nagaland

Partial ban

Date: 29th Nov, 2018

 

Notification No.: UDD/7- GEN/07-PWM/2018

Complete ban on single use plastic less than 50 microns,

25

Odisha

Complete ban

Notification Order No.

18441,

Dt. 30.09.2019

Polythene carry bags thickness of any shape and size has been banned in all Municipal limits in the State.

Govt. of Odisha. Further in the said order State has been prohibited (use polythene sheets of less than50 micron thickness for storing, transporting, dispensing or packaging of any articles, commodity or food items)

26

Puducherry

Complete ban

Not Available

total ban on single use plastics with effect from 02.08.2019.

27

Punjab

Complete ban

Notification no 5/18/2016- 4lg4/692717/1 dated 18.02.2016

 

 

S.O.438/P.A.

9/1994/S30/2016 dated

29.03.2016

Complete ban on Manufacture, stock, distribute, recycle, sale & use of plastic carrybags.

28

Rajasthan

Complete ban

Notification dated : 21.07.2010

Complete ban on use, store & sale of plastic

carrybags

29

Sikkim

Complete ban

Notification No.: GOS/UD&HD97-98/6(85)

 

Date: 04-06-1998

Complete ban on sale & use, storage of plastic carry bags

30

Tamil Nadu

Complete Ban

Date: 25.06.2018

 

Notification No.: G.O. (Ms). No.84 dated 25.06.2018

Complete ban on manufacture, sell, use, storage, Transportation and distribution of “Single- use plastics” i.e. plastic carrybags, flags, sheets using for food wrapping, straws, tea cups, tumblers, water packets & pouches

31

Telangana

Not

Banned

 

Not Banned

32

Tripura

Complete ban

Notification no:F.B(30)/DSTE/ENV/Pt-

II//1679-97 dated 10.03.2015

Complete ban on Sell, use, storage, Transportation & import of plastic carrybags (including polypropylene, non- woven fabric type)

plastic tube to pack or cover any book including magazine &

invitation/greeting cards.

33

Uttar Pradesh

Complete ban

Date: 15-07-2018

 

Notification No. 1056/9-7-18- 29(Lucknow)/18

Manufacture, Sell, use, Storage, Transportation & import of plastic carrybags of thickness 50 microns and cups, bowl, container, tumblers, glasses &

plates etc made of plastic or thermocol

34

Uttarakhand

Complete Ban

Date: 25.01.2017

 

Notification No. 88/x-3-17- 13(11)/2001

Manufacture, Sell, use, Storage, Transportation & import of plastic carrybags,cups, bowl, container, tumblers, glasses & plates etc

made of plastic or thermocol

35

West Bengal

 

Not available

Restricted use & sale of plastic carry bags in ecologically fragile areas and in certain heritage & tourist spots

This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha today

(Release ID: 2036730) Visit

Deaths due to pollution in the country

 Deaths due to pollution in the country

Posted On: 25 JUL 2024 1:33PM by PIB Delhi

There is no conclusive data available to establish a direct correlation of death exclusively with air pollution. Air pollution is one of the many factors affecting respiratory ailments and associated diseases. Health is impacted by a number of factors which include food habits, occupational habits, socio-economic status, medical history, immunity, heredity, etc., of the individuals apart from the environment. Steps taken by the Government to improve the air quality are enclosed as Annexure-I.

Annexure - I

National Clean Air Programme:

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) has been launched by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in January 2019 with an aim to improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million Plus Cities) in 24 States by engaging all stakeholders.

NCAP envisages reduction by 20-30% in PM concentration over baseline in year 2017 by 2024. Target has been revised to achieve reduction in PM10 level up to 40% or achievement of national standards (60 µg/m3) by 2025-26.

City Action Plans (CAPs) have been prepared by all 131 cities and being implemented by Urban Local Bodies.

The city specific clean air action plans target city specific air polluting sources like Soil & Road Dust, Vehicles, Domestic Fuel, MSW Burning, Construction Material and Industries.

Performance based financial support is provided to these131 cities for implementation of activities of City Action Plan.

Further, funding for implementation of CAPs is mobilised through convergence of resources from various schemes of Central Government such as Swachh Bharat Mission SBM (Urban), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Smart City Mission, Sustainable Alternative towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT), Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME-II), Nagar Van Yojna, etc. and resources from State/UT Governments and its agencies such as Municipal Corporation, Urban Development authorities and Industrial development authorities etc.

Public Grievance Redressal Portal (PGRP)/helpline have been developed by all 131 cities to address public complaints of air pollution in timely manner.

Emergency Response System (ERS/ GRAP) have been developed by all 131cities for taking action in air emergencies

Under NCAP, an amount of Rs. 19,614.44 crores has been earmarked to 131 cities during the period FY 2019-20 till FY 2025-26 out of which 49 Million Plus Cities/Urban Agglomerations are funded under XVth Finance Commission air quality grant and remaining 82 cities are funded by MoEF&CC under Control of Pollution Scheme. So far, an amount of Rs. 11,211.13 crores was released to 131 cities to implement City Action Plans in their respective cities.

95 cities out of 131 cities have shown improvement in air quality in terms of annual PM10 concentrations in FY 2023-24 with respect to the baseline of FY 2017-18. 18 cities have met National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM10 (60 µg/m3) in FY 2023-24.

Other steps

Notification of Ambient Air Quality Standards.

Revision of emission standards for industrial sectors from time to time.

Setting up of monitoring network for assessment of ambient air quality.

Introduction of cleaner/alternate fuels like gases fuel (CNG, LPG, etc.).

Promotion of ethanol blending.

Launching of National Air Quality Index.

Leapfrogging from BS-IV to BS-VI fuel standards.

Introduction of BS VI compliant vehicles across the country since April, 2020.

Notification of Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules.

Installation of on-line continuous (24x7) monitoring devices by major industries.

Notification of Graded Response Action Plan for Delhi and National Capital Region (NCR).

Constitution of Commission on Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) etc.

Installation of Vapour Recovery System (VRS) in new and existing petrol pumps selling gasoline >100kl per month in million plus cities and those selling >300kl per month in cities with population between 1 lakh to 1 million.

For strengthening monitoring mechanism and effective compliance through self-regulatory mechanism, CPCB directed all 17 categories of highly polluting industries to install Online Continuous Emission Monitoring System (OCEMS).

Shifting of all operational brick kilns to zig-zag technology.

This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha today.

*****

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Impact of climate change

 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Impact of climate change

Posted On: 25 JUL 2024 1:32PM by PIB Delhi

As per the Synthesis Report of the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), human activities, principally through emissions of greenhouse gases, have unequivocally

caused global warming, with global surface temperature reaching 1.1°C above 1850-1900 level in the decade

of 2011-2020. The Working Group II in its contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the IPCC, dealing

with Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, has reported that worldwide climate change is increasingly

affecting marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems and ecosystem services, water and food security,

settlements and infrastructure, health and well-being, and economies and culture, especially through

compound stresses and events.

India’s Third National Communication submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) in 2023 has reported that India is experiencing full range of climate change impacts,

ranging from floods and droughts to heatwaves and glacier melt. The impacts of climate change are observed

in sectors, biodiversity and forests; agriculture; water resources; coastal and marine ecosystems; human

health; gender; urban and infrastructure.

India’s climate actions across various sectors are embedded in various programme and schemes.

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) provides the overarching framework for all

climate actions and comprises missions in specific areas of solar energy, enhanced energy

efficiency, sustainable habitat, water, sustaining Himalayan ecosystems, Green India, sustainable

agriculture, human health and strategic knowledge for climate change. All these Missions are

institutionalized and implemented by their respective Nodal Ministries/Departments, Further, thirtyfour States/Union Territories (UTs) have prepared their State Action Plans on Climate Change

(SAPCC) in line with NAPCC taking into account the State specific issues relating to climate

change. The responsibility of the implementation of the SAPCCs rest with the respective States.

 Under the National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change, projects worth Rs. 847.48 crore have

been sanctioned in 27 States / Union Territories. India’s Initial Adaptation Communication submitted

to UNFCCC in December 2023 indicates that the total adaptation relevant expenditure for the year

2021-22 was 5.6 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), growing from a share of 3.7 per

cent in 2015-16, which shows that the Government has been making consistent efforts to integrate

climate resilience and adaptation into development plans and spending a significant amount of

resources for adaptation, despite the competing demands especially from the social sector for

resources.

This information was given by the Minister of State for Environment, Forest and Climate Change,

Shri Kirti Vardhan Singh in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha today

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change publishing

 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

Protection of Elephants

Strategies to reduce air pollution

Compulsory ban on polythene bags

Environmental impact of the Great Nicobar Project

Deaths due to pollution in the country

Impact of climate change

Risk of natural disasters due to melting of glaciers

Ministry of Fisheries

Sodium Adsorption Ratio and its Effects on the Soil Characteristics

 Wonderful topic coved by Smt . M.V. Bhadravathi 

The Basics of Ion Exchange and Water Chemistry-Part II, The Water Analysis

 

WCP Online

Home»2007»The Basics of Ion Exchange and Water Chemistry-Part II, The Water Analysis

2007

The Basics of Ion Exchange and Water Chemistry-Part II, The Water Analysis

APRIL 26, 200717 MINS READ

By C.F. “Chubb” Michaud CWS-VI

In Part 1 of this two-part series, we discussed basic chemistry and ionization and the value of the Periodic Table of Elements to the water treatment professional. In Part 2, we examine the proper use of a water analysis and pitfalls to avoid in deciphering it.

To properly design a water treatment system, particularly with ion exchange and reverse osmosis (RO), it’s necessary to first get both a quantitative and qualitative listing of what the intended feedstream contains. This listing is known as the water analysis and a proper interpretation is a must to assure good results. Although the purpose of an ion exchange system is to remove only the offending ionic components of a feedstream, other factors such as temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), pH and trace minerals also play a role and must therefore be considered.

Laboratories usually report a water analysis using certain approved test methods, which give the results in milligrams per liter (mg/L). This is convenient because one mg/L is equal to one ppm, or part per million. This number, however, is in units of weight. Ion exchangers, on the other hand, don’t deal with weight; they deal with ions, which are the real chemical components we are trying to remove. A milligram of magnesium or calcium does not contain the same number of ions or ionic equivalents as does sodium or hydrogen. The convention commonly used is to convert to ppm as CaCO3 (calcium carbonate). Confusion arises because both the mg/L value and the CaCO3 value can be and often are reported as ppm. A good practice would be to refer to elemental components (the analysis) as mg/L and the CaCO3 equivalents (the conversion) as ppm.

The convention: CaCO3 as ppm and ppm as CaCO3  

CaCO3 is an arbitrary name choice. It has a formula or molecular weight (MW) of 100 (compared to carbon with a MW of 12). Both the calcium (Ca+2) and carbonate (CO3-2) ions are divalent; i.e., they have a charge value of +2 and -2, respectively (compared to sodium at +1) and, thus, an equivalent weight of 50.

The equivalent weight of any substance is equal to its MW divided by its valence. In the case of CaCO3, this is 100 ÷ 2 = 50. It should be noted that neither Ca+2 nor CO3-2 have an equivalent weight of 50, but the combination does. The equivalent weight of Ca+2 is 20 (MW = 40 ÷ 2 = 20) and the equivalent weight of CO3-2 is 30 (MW = 60 ÷ 2 = 30). We must therefore equate even the Ca and CO3 content of water to the equivalent weight of CaCO3. We do this by multiplying by a conversion factor (which is derived by dividing the number 50 (the equivalent weight of CaCO3) by the equivalent weight of the substance). In the case of Ca, this is 50 ÷ 20 = 2.5. For CO3, it’s 50 ÷ 30 = 1.67. Note that for demineralizer calculations, the CO3-2 ion will not exist as a divalent carbonate ion but as a monovalent bicarbonate ion (HCO3-1) with a conversion factor = 0.82). We can readily see that most common components of water have a different molecular weight, so we will have a variety of conversion factors. Table 1 lists the common elements and their conversion factors. A simple water analysis converted from mg/L to ppm as CaCO3 is shown in Table 2.

While the total dissolved mineral content of this water (residual by evaporation) would measure 432 mg/L of raw water (cation = 113.4 + anion 300.4 plus silica 18 = 431.8), the TDS as CaCO3 is 273.5 ppm for deionization (or DI) purposes. One does not add the cation and anion values together to get total TDS as CaCO3.

For anion determinations, the silica is quoted as an afterthought: “I have 273.5 ppm water with 15 ppm of silica.” For mixed bed calculations, this is 288.5 ppm water. Since a grain (of mineral) is 17.1 ppm of TDS as CaCO3, we have 10 grain water (Ca + Mg = 170 ppm as CaCO3) and for dealkalization, it’s a 10.5 grain water (HCO3 + CO3 = 184 ppm as CaCO3). There are 16.0 grains of cations and 16.9 grains of anions for deionization.

Every ion has a partner

Every ion is assumed to have a counter ion (as a dancing partner, so to speak). It should be noted that with extreme pH conditions (i.e. <4 or >10), there will be an excess of cations or anions, respectively. Normally, every cation has an anion (with the exception of silica) so the total cations should equal the total anions (without silica). Silica, a weakly ionized acid, is presumed to exist (for DI purposes) as H2SiO3 (silicic acid) and has H+ as its partner. It therefore stands alone as an anion.

Sometimes the water analysis will be incomplete in that only the offending ions (calcium, magnesium, iron, alkalinity, sulfate and silica) are reported—sodium and chloride are missing. If the analysis appears incomplete, look for the obvious. You can estimate the ppm as CaCO3 by dividing conductivity (as micromhos, or mmhos) by 2.5. In Table 2, we show conductivity as 650 umhos. Dividing by 2.5 gives us a TDS of 260 ppm.

If the totals for cation and anion are not equal, we make them equal by adding to the sodium (Na+) or chloride (Cl–) values. For instance, if the cation total were 15 less than the anion, we would add 15 ppm to Na+ as CaCO3 to the cation load. Include the ppm as CaCO3 values for all monovalent cations (K+, NH4+) as part of the Na+ total and monovalent anions (NO3– or F-) as Cl- totals. For DI purposes, iron (Fe+2) can be treated as Ca+2 after conversion.

We then add silica value to the anion total to get the total anion load. This is done after balancing the cation and anion totals. For the purposes of capacity calculations, it is generally safe to ignore any items with values below 0.1 ppm. Dividing these corrected totals by 17.1 converts the ppm as CaCO3 values to grains per gallon (gpg) values. Since the ion exchange capacity is usually determined in kilograins (Kgr) per cubic foot, (one Kgr = 1,000 grains), we can now determine the throughput capacity in gallons per cubic foot (gal/ft3) of resin. Simply divide the grains of loading into the capacity of the resin.

Traps

Values for any given water analysis are not done for the convenience of the poor engineer who is trying to treat the water. They are done by convention. Hardness (Ca and Mg) and alkalinity (HCO3 + CO3 + OH) are often given as ppm as +. Metals, including iron, are often given in micrograms/L or ppb (billion) and written as µg/L. The µ symbol is the Greek letter, mu and it stands for micro (millionth) and not milli (thousandth). Nitrates (and ammonium [NH4]) are often reported in ppm as N (nitrogen). This has to be converted to ppm as NO3 by multiplying by MW ratios. N = 14 and NO3 = 62. Therefore, 10 ppm NO3 as N becomes 10 x 62/14 = 44.3 ppm as ion and 44.3 x 50/62 = 35.7 ppm as +. SO4 and H2S may be reported as total sulfur and also must be converted to ion; then to ppm as CaCO3.

The capacity of DI resin is dependent upon the water analysis, particularly the ratio of sodium to total cation and alkalinity to total anion. First, simplify the water analysis by grouping the ions to show only Ca, Mg, Na as cations and HCO3, SO4, Cl and Silica as anions. Fe adds to Ca; K to Na; CO3 to HCO3 and NO3 to Cl. Conversion calculations can be rounded up to whole numbers and percentage calculations can be approximate (with the charts you will have to read, the width of your pencil lead is a percent or two). Always err in the direction of being conservative. Always understate your capacity. No one has ever been held liable for a DI system that still works and delivers after three years. If you design your system to just barely squeak by on Day One, it will not work on Day Two and all those following. Let’s give it a try!

Resin capacity determination

To use most engineering literature and charts, you first have to break down this analysis in percentages. Our cation content is 37.7 percent Na, 55 percent Ca and 7.3 percent Mg. Our anion is 63.8 percent alkalinity, 31.0 percent free mineral acid (total of Cl + SO4) and 5.2 percent silica. You can use 40 percent for sodium and 65 percent for alkalinity, etc. The literature shows that the cation capacity (at approximately 40 percent Na and 65 percent alkalinity) to be 27.5 Kgr/ft3. Using a 10 percent engineering downgrade, we have a net design capacity of 24.75 Kgr/ft3 (27.5 x .9 = 24.75) for the cation. The anion (use a Type II) will have a book capacity of 20.3 Kgr/ft3 (with five percent silica in the influent) and we will downgrade this by 15 percent for design purposes (multiply by 0.85), which leaves us with 17.25 Kgr/ft3. The engineering downgrade factor is a safety factor applied to DI calculations to allow for wear and tear, resin loss and some fouling, as well as variations in the feedstream over the life of the resin. It is usually 10 percent for cation resins and 15 percent for anion resins and is deemed to be a three-year projection. In other words, the system should still meet capacity specifications after three years of capacity losses.

Since we have an anion load of 16.9 gpg, we will have to remove 16.9 gr/gal x 20 gal/min x 60 min/hr x 12 hr/cycle = 243,360 grains/cycle. Dividing this by 17.25 Kgr anion capacity, we see we’ll need 14 cubic feet of anion resin.

Since the cation will have to produce the water required to regenerate the anion resin, we must now add that quantity of water to our cation load before determining the size of the cation exchanger. The total gallons are 20 gpm x 60 min/hr x 12 hr/cycle = 14,400 gal. Assuming 75 gallons of water is required to regenerate each cubic foot of anion resin, add 1,050 gallons (75 gal/cu.ft. x 14 cu.ft.). The cation must therefore treat 15,450 gallons (x 16.0 gpg) or 247,200 grains. Dividing this by our cation rating of 24.75 Kgr, we will need 10 cubic feet of cation resin.

The physical design guidelines

Standard and acceptable flow rates for DI design are one to three gpm/cu.ft. In our above design for a 20-gpm system, we are at 1.4 gpm/cu.ft. of anion and 2.0 gpm/cu.ft. of cation. Hydraulic considerations are 4 to10 gpm/sq.ft. of bed area. If we choose a 30-inch diameter tank for the anion, we have 4.0 gpm/sq.ft. and a 24-inch tank for the cation gives us 6.4 gpm/sq.ft. Most capacities are calculated on a minimum of a 30-inch bed depth (the capacity drops with shorter beds) and a 60-inch maximum. Our 10 cu.ft. of cation will have a bed depth of 38.2 inches and our 14 cu.ft. of anion will have a bed depth of 34.3 inches. It is suggested that under-bedding be used in DI systems to utilize the full capacity of the resin. If this service requirement of 12 hours is extended, it may be possible to add resin to either or both vessels to make up the extra capacity. If plastic tanks are used, they are usually only 72 inches high and the usable straight sidewalls are only 13.4 and 20.2 cu.ft. respectively. This means that the freeboard is only about 35 percent for the cation and 44 percent for the anion. These are minimal and neither system can tolerate more resin. To increase the capacity, the user would have to install a duplicate system or a new, larger system. However, if you started with 84- or 96-inch sidewall tanks, the capacities could be increased by 50 to 60 percent simply by adding resin.

Resin capacities are dependent on the water analysis (among other things) and therefore not constant for every system. There is no one-size- fits-all solution. The ratios of various ions to one another will cause the resin capacity to vary as will the quality of effluent one is targeting. Flow rate per cubic foot will also affect capacity as will temperature of service and regenerant. In addition, the amount of regenerant is usually determined by the leakage values (quality) needed. Effluent water quality is what sets the whole thing in motion. Leakage, the background ions that appear to be incomplete removal of unwanted ions, is a result of incomplete regeneration. In this example, the literature tells us that we can expect a leakage of approximately 0.5 percent sodium as a percentage of total cations or (0.005 x 273.5= 1.4 ppm). This leakage will exist in the product water as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) because the anion resin will convert all anions to the hydroxide: H+ converts to HOH and Na+ converts to NaOH. So what does this mean in water quality? Again, according to the literature, NaOH has a resistivity that is about one-fifth that of NaCl. To put it another way, NaOH is five times more conductive than an equivalent ppm of NaCl. 1.4 ppm of NaOH gives a resistivity of 120,000 ohms/cm at 25°C (77°F) or about 8.3 microsiemens (µS).

Sodium leakage is reduced with increased regeneration level. In the above example, increasing the HCl regeneration level to eight lbs/cu.ft. would improve the leakage to 0.9 ppm, reducing the conductivity to about five µS. Always start with the determination of how low your leakage has to be (using NaOH as effluent) which sets the regeneration level. The regenerant level sets the capacity and the capacity sets the volume of resin needed.

Softener loading

There is more to building a softener than simply measuring hardness of the water and setting the dial. Your customer not only wants his or her water softened today, they want it softened tomorrow, next month and 10 years from now. This means the regeneration procedure must also be a rejuvenation procedure to keep the unit operating satisfactorily for many years. The water analysis can help us determine how to do this.

Softener throughput is influenced not only by hardness, but also by TDS, iron, temperature, flow rate and regeneration level and technique. Since TDS and iron will generally be part of the water analysis, we’ll look at those.

Hard water leakage is caused by residual hardness that is left on the resin after regeneration and bleeds off during the service run. Increasing the salt dosage can minimize it. As hard water passes through a resin bed, the hardness is exchanged for sodium or potassium. The higher the sodium level (or TDS feed level), the higher the tendency for the softened water to leach hardness back off the resin. This reduces the run length (and thus the capacity) between the baseline leakage and the breakthrough leakage. Simply knowing the TDS ahead of time can allow you to avoid costly field calls to remedy low capacity or leakage complaints by adjusting the capacity setting and using a higher salt dose ahead of time. To achieve five ppm (or less) leakage during the run, use the salt settings from Table 3 for various TDS values.

Soluble iron is exchanged onto a cation exchanger as Fe+2. However, iron may oxidize on the resin to Fe+3 and is not readily removed by salt regeneration. In addition, NaCl usually produces an alkaline pH brine which will precipitate iron during regeneration. By assigning a higher value for iron, we will increase the softener load and reduce the throughput volume. This means you will regenerate more frequently (reducing the probability of iron oxidizing on and in the resin). To overcome the potential problems of alkaline brine, you can use a resin cleaner that automatically dumps phosphoric or citric acid into the brine during regeneration or use potassium chloride (KCl), which generally produces a slightly acidic pH.

A good practice is to treat each ppm of iron as one grain of hardness. As such, in our sample water analysis, we have 10 grains loading from hardness and we add 0.3 grains for the iron (total = 10.3). Soluble iron levels as high as 30 ppm has been successfully treated with a standard softener with 10 to 12 pounds of salt/ft3 regeneration level. Citric acid (available from most chemical suppliers) works well at a level of one pound per 50 pounds of salt and can be added directly to the brine tank.

Turbidity

Dirty waters can plug and foul ion exchange units, causing channeling and capacity loss. Use a pre-filter if the turbidity values are >5 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units).

Color

Natural organics (such as tannins) or iron (colloidal, organic or precipitated) may cause color, reported as APHA units. Values for color below 25 APHA are usually not noticeable by eye. Again, try to determine what is causing the color and install proper prefiltration. Softeners do not remove color. Granular activated carbon (GAC) and/or salt regeneration anion resin can often do the job.

Temperature

Ion exchange systems are usually intended to function with water feed temperatures of 10 to 37.77°C (50 to 100°F). Higher temperatures can be detrimental to anion resins in DI systems. A lab-supplied water analysis may list temperature, but it is meaningless. Rather, check with the intended installation site if anion exchange enters into the picture. Cation systems should have no trouble with temperatures above 121.11°C (250°F) .

Much of the ion exchange process depends upon ions’ ability to diffuse into and out of the resin bead matrix. This is temperature dependent and is seriously slowed by cold-water operations. Resin beds should be at least 50 percent larger in diameter and 100 percent larger in volume to effectively handle water streams below 4.44°C (40°F).

Conclusions

Obtaining and using a good water analysis is essential to the proper design of any water filtration system, particularly an ion exchanger. There is much valuable information on a lab analysis that can help you to avoid design errors. Make sure you understand the water analysis. Check the math to make sure the units add up. Make sure the cations are equal to the anions and then add in silica to determine total loading. Use a conservative design with a downgrade for engineering, even for softeners.

References

Dictionary of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.

Kunin, Robert, Ion Exchange Resins, Krieger Publishing, New York, 1972.

Wachinski, A.M. and J.E. Etzel, Environmental Ion Exchange, Lewis Publishers, New York, 1997.

About the author

C.F. ‘Chubb’ Michaud is the CEO and Technical Director of Systematix Company, Buena Park, Calif., which he founded in 1982. An active member of the Water Quality Association, Michaud has been a member of its Board and of the Board of Governors and past Chair of the Commercial/Industrial Section. He is a Certified Water Specialist Level VI. He serves on the Board of Directors of the Pacific WQA (since 2001) and chairs its Technical Committee. A founding member of WC&P’s Technical Review Committee, Michaud has authored or presented over 100 technical publications and papers. He can be reached at Systematix Inc., 6902 Aragon Circle, Buena Park CA 90620; telephone (714) 522-5453 or via email at cmichaud@systematixUSA.com

 

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2007

Water Business Springs from A Georgia Homestead

APRIL 26, 20075 MINS READ

By Denise M. Roberts

Sometimes the history of a company is just as important as its products and services. In 1986, S.E. Lundy remodeled his century-old family home and found that the copper pipes were as thin as paper. Blue-green stains and pinhole leaks were everywhere. Fortunately for Lundy, his co-worker Bill Caudill had a side business: Metro Water Filter Company. The two men discussed the pipe issue and Lundy was convinced to install a manual pH filter.

Fascinated with the filtration process, Lundy soon started selling and installing filters for Caudill on a part-time basis; in 1989 he started his own water business. He was passionate about water filtration. “It was almost an obsession for my father,” said youngest son and company spokesman Robert ‘Lee’ Lundy. “On one family va