Mineral Water

Mineral Water

Tap water Bottled Water Drinking water alternative sources
On the earth there is no such important resource for the human kind as water. Water forms form 50 to 60% in weight of our body and play an active role in all the vital processes of our body: it allows digestion, food elaboration and waste elimination. Every day we drink water or we eat watery food to replenish our metabolic reserve.

But what is the water we drink made of? Can we rely on drinking tap water or it is preferable to buy bottled water? Among the several brand on sale, which one should we choose?

Here and in the related pages you'll find all the answers to these questions.

Which is the composition of the water we drink?

The water formula is H2O, two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, but only distilled water has this structure. Rain water, snow and ice are quite similar to distilled water. Water presents in nature contains, even if in traces, minerals very important for our health: salt and oligoelements dissolved during its way through the soil or its flowing in rocky streams.
If you would like to have further information from health risks from drinking demineralized water, click here.

Mineral salts and oligoelements

Calcium (Ca)
Calcium is one of the most common elements on the earth. It is essential in our body for teeth and bones formation, blood coagulation, right functioning of our nervous system. Calcium ions are contained in almost all spring, drinking water. Health effects caused by hard water, very rich in calcium and magnesium, are unknown. An excess in calcium can alter the water taste or cause scaling problems in pipes and household appliances. If you use a device for the reduction of the content of calcium and magnesium ions dissolved in water (softener), it is important that the calcium content never goes under 60 mg/l. The World Health Organisation recommend a minimum calcium daily intake of about 700 mg. Drinking calcium poor water is considered dangerous for the risk of coronary diseases.

Magnesium (Mg)
Magnesium is, with sodium and calcium, among the cations most commonly found in drinking water. In humans magnesium is important for many metabolic functions and for muscular and nervous activity. The daily recommended intake is 150-500 mg.

Sodium (Na)
Sodium is an element very diffused on earth and in the biosphere, even if in nature it is almost never in its pure form, but mainly in form of salt (NaCl). Our body contains an average of 100 g of sodium which is an important metabolic regulator for nervous and muscular stimulations. The daily sodium chlorine intake is 20 mg. Due to our diet very rich in salt it is recommended to drink water with a sodic content lower than 20 mg/l, particularly for ipertense people and children. The salt consumption in industrialized countries is considered much higher than the recommended levels (about 3.9 g/day on average). Drinking 2 liters of water containing 20 mg/l of sodium you reach 40 mg, that is about the 5% of the total intake. To reduce the daily sodium intake it would be more logical to change your nutrition: i.e. to eat only integral sea salt, more equilibrate and rich in mineral salts at home, and to avoid precooked food, always rich in refined salt.

Chromium (Cr)
Chromium is an important oligoelement for our organism, on condition that certain concentration are not exceeded and the element is not found in toxic or carcinogenic combinations (always due to industrial pollution). At present there is no recommended daily intake.

Copper (Cu)
Copper is an essential element for our health, but it is toxic at high concentration. A daily intake of 1.2 mg is recommended. Copper pollution in water can originate form copper pipes corrosion by soft, acidic water.

Iron (Fe)
Food rich in iron is very important, particularly for children and women in fertile age. The recommended daily intake is 10 mg. Iron is usually contained in low amount in drinking water. The WHO recommend a maximum of 0.3 mg/l the EEC of 0.2 mg/l. Possible increasing (lower than 200 mg/l) are not to be considered harmful, even if they make the water not nice to drink and give an unpleasant reddish colour.

Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine is an important constituent of organic liquid and a daily intake of 7-15 g of NaCl is recommended.

Manganese (Mn)
Food usually covers the recommended daily intake of 2-3 mg. An excessive concentration in water is not necessarily harmful, but originates the same problems as iron (unpleasant taste and colour).

Selenium (Se)
Even if selenium is considered a toxic element taken is high dosage, it is an important anti-oxidant. Selenium is useful to attack free radicals and then prevent aging. The recommended daily intake by EEC is 40 picog. A possible lack of selenium can increase the risk of tumour and cardiovascular diseases.

Fluorine (F)
In someone opinion fluorine is useful for the good health of bones and teeth, sometimes it is even essential, in others opinion it is unnecessary when you are adult, above all if it is added.
Fluorine is an halogen and it is the most electronegative of all the elements, so it reacts easily with most of the elements. In 1945 the addition of fluorine in drinking water began to be experimented in New York State, followed by Australia and some areas in UK, with the declared purpose of preventing dental caries in population. Water fluorination is prohibited in Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and France; in Spain and Germany local authorities handle every decision and in Italy there is no specific law on this matter.
Fluorine values useful for our body are very close to toxic values, so a dispense not aimed and personalized can cause high risk of overdosing and chronicle poisoning, with consequent skeleton deformation, spots on tooth enamel, osteosclerosis, neurological disorders, damages on the thyroids and even tumours. According with some research 10% of fluoride doesn't deposit in teeth and bones, but in organisms such as kidneys. Fluorine has negative effects on the central nervous system, determining behaviour alterations, cognitive deficit, influencing on the foetus development even in concentration not harmful for the mother.
The calcium fluoride presents in nature is very different from the sodium-silica-fluoride (Na2SiF6) added in drinking water, an industrial waste that is toxic and difficult to digest.
People against drinking water fluorination argue that it is a violence that does not count individual choice freedom, not to mention the individual tolerance limit.

Other inorganic toxic substances

Many toxic minerals are contained in water supplies, usually at high levels. Treatment and potabilisation plants work very well reducing these minerals to safe levels. Minerals can enter surface or ground water through natural sources, industrial sewage, leach age from urban or agricultural areas, water pipes walls or even from domestic sources.
The list of organic substances that you can find in industrial applications is long, a brief description of the most common follows.

Phosphates
Phosphate in water originates from detergents and fertilisation and a level higher than 0.1 mg/l indicates pollution. Flora and fauna, very sensitive to phosphate presence, are the main victims.
Sulphates
Sulphates are sulphuric acid salts combined with metallic ions. Water can naturally contains small quantities of sulphates, but they are mostly transferred in water bodies from the atmosphere and in the atmosphere form road traffic, industries and energetic production. Sulphur oxidised in the air can come back on the soil as acid rain, causing serious environmental problems.

Nitrates and nitrites
Nitrates are the main source of nitrogen for plants and an essential constituent for nucleic acids and amino acids.
A nitrates water content of about 10 mg/l is considered normal and natural. Different concentration is due to human operations (mauring, air pollution due to transport). The problems resulting from excessive nitrate presence are due to the toxicity of nitrate for human body: nitrates are transformed in nitrites or in carcinogenic nitrosamines.

Aluminium (Al)
Aluminium is very abundant on the earth, but is not important for human nutrition. Aluminium can have toxic effects even in small quantities. These effects occur in nervous system, but health effects originating from aluminium intake through water are still on debate.
Aluminium concentration is usually lower than 200 mg/l in drinking water. If you drink 1.5 litre of water per day, your daily intake from water is lower than 300 mg/day, a negligible amount if compared with the amount taken by nutrition (10-20 mg/day). There is no evidence that the aluminium assumed through water is more soluble and then more easily digestible, than the aluminium contained in food. Due to all these uncertainties at present there are no rules about its concentration allowed in drinking water. The WHO recommend a concentration lower than 20 mg/l.

Arsenic (As)
Arsenic can be toxic even in low amounts. Nevertheless the arsenic contained in food (amounts ranging from 0.01 to 1.5 mg/kg of dry weight) has a different influence: it carries out some positive metabolic function for our body. Its toxicity is strongly linked on the concentration.

Lead (Pb)
Lead is poisoning even in small amounts for microorganisms, interfering with haemoglobin formation and with the functionality of central nervous system. Lead is particularly harmful for children, who can suffer long term neurological and behavioural disorders. Major lead sources are paint, vehicle emissions, food and water. The European Directive about drinking water for human consumption 98/93/EC states that the maximum allowed lead concentration in drinking water should decrease from the actual 50 mg/l to 10 mg/l within 25 December 2013. The problem in Italy is that many pipes contain lead and acidic soft water, with a low phosphate content. If this water lingers for long time in the pipes it can adsorb lead. Some precautions can be taken to lower lead content in drinking water:

    flush the water before drinking it, since lingering water in pipes tends to accumulate lead; to avoid water dissipation it is recommended to collect the flushed water in bottles and tanks for a following use;

    do not use hot tap water for cooking, since hot water dissolve lead more easily than cold water;

    periodically remove clinker and slag from the pipes;

    to use an home water filter is certainly a good way for lead removal.

Cadmium (Cd)
Cadmium is a highly toxic heavy metal, considered carcinogen. Its harmful action is similar to the effect of lead and it can be released in drinking water by zinced iron pipes. Zinc always contains a small amount of cadmium.

Mercury (Hg)
Mercury can or can not be toxic, depending on its chemical bonds. The WHO recommend a daily intake of 0.3 mg/day for a 60 kg person. Mercury can be released in ground water or in surface water by industrial waste water discharge in rivers and estuaries, by leach age from toxic landfill, by mercury emissions from volcanoes, seismic underground activity, incineration and fossil fuels combustion. The mercury released in the atmosphere is very light, so it can reach long distances from the source and fall again on the soil through rain, entering water bodies.
However mercury is not commonly found as pollutant in our drinking water.

Asbestos
Asbestos can reach drinking water through natural sources, pipes built in a compound made of concrete and asbestos and from atmosphere. Hard water seems to bring to a lower asbestos loss compared to water poor in salts, which is much more corrosive.

Chlorine (Cl)
At present chlorination is the most used treatment to remove water bacteria which could cause health problems. The Italian law allows 30 mg/l of chlorine, while the guidelines of the European Directive indicate 1 mg/l and specify that the concentration should be as low as possible. According with international research the consumption of water containing compounds formed after the reaction between chlorine and microorganisms (trihalometanes) can contribute to the increasing of huro-genital tumours.
If when you open the tap you smell the chlorine odour typical of swimming pools, it is recommended to pour the water in a large tank and to leave it open or semi-open for about half an hour. Chlorine is in fact very volatile and tend to still on the water surface. To accelerate chlorine dispersion you can pour the water from a tank to another repetitively or mix very quickly.

Chemical organic compounds

Chemical organic compounds directly originates from plant or animal matter. For instance plastics are chemical organics compounds made of petrol, which originates from plants and animals.
Nowadays there are more than 100.000 chemical organic compounds, which include synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, biocides, herbicides, paints, dyes, flavours and pharmaceutical substances. Most of these compounds are toxic and many have been found in water reservoirs. VOC (Volatile Organic Compounds) are very dangerous, because they are adsorbed by the skin in contact with the water carrying them. If chlorine used for the water disinfection is in contact with these chemical organic compounds, the carcinogens trihalometanes can form.

Phyto-pharmaceuticals
Phyto-pharmaceutical products are the most accused substances for ground water pollution. We are not going to spend too much time in the description of their use and abuse, but everybody should know cases of closed wells. Even if ground water pollution stopped immediately, impossible thing to happen, it would take a long to soil and water to recover. Not very much is known about the compound of phyto-pharmaceuctics, but metabolites can be much more toxic than water.

Surfactants
Surfactants are the substances used in detergents to lower the surface tension of the water, allowing it to wet the clothes better. We all use substances containing surfactants, which are responsible of the pollution of the water we drink. They are also in cosmetics, anti freezing products, glues, colours. We can contribute to the reduction of this pollution source, using only the minimum necessary quantity or choosing biodegradable surfactants.

Microbiological pollution
Microorganisms include bacteria, virus and parasite.
Bacteria are carefully monitored in public water supplies, since they can be responsible of serious diseases as typhoid, cholera, hepatitis etc. and their presence can be easily detected. Bacteria are easily killed by adding chlorine.
Viruses are very abundant in water supplies as well. They are much more difficult to detect. Most viruses are killed by chlorination, and anyway most of the viruses carried by water are too week to be harmful for humans.
The third group of microorganisms commonly found in water are parasite, as giardia and cryptosporidium. They are very resistant and can be found in tap water even is a treatment system is present.
When drinking water has to be carried along long distances, the problem of a possible pollution occurs. This pollution can happen through the contact of water with porous surfaces or synthetic materials that are an ideal media for microorganisms. A particular type of infection which can be transmitted through water is legionella. The risk occurs particularly in showers or Jacuzzis. The ideal environment for the bacteria of legionella phneumofila is included between 37 and 45 C.

What color is the Red Sea?

What color is the Red Sea?

While the thought of wiggling your toes in the azure waters may be appealing, not all seas, oceans, and lakes are blue. Because of energy lost through vibrational effects, bodies of water usually appear blue. Some seas are pale blue while others are an intense, turquoise blue. Thanks to other influences such as cyanobacteria, water is sometimes green, red, or even brown.

Is the Red Sea red?

The Red Sea’s water is predominantly blue. There are a number of theories as to the origins of the name. Some believe it was named by early travelers because of the region’s reddish mineral-rich mountains. It is surrounded by a desiccated and largely barren landscape, and its hot, salty waters contain beautiful coral reefs. It may appear red in places because of reflections of the surrounding landscape, or reds in the coral on the seabed. As one early traveler noted, "In some places it is very green, in others white and yellow, according to the color of the earth or sand at the bottom."

The waters of the Red Sea are blue, though they may appear red due to reflections of the surrounding reddish landscape or reddish coral on its seabed.

Scientist sampling a Trichodesmium bloom. The colors of the slick are sometimes vivid due to the photosynthetic pigments in the algae, including green chlorophyll and purple phycoerythrin.

Today, it is widely accepted that the Red Sea is named for an occasional bloom of the cyanobacteria, Trichodesmium erythraeum algae, which clouds and muddies the usually translucent blue-green waters. These cyanobacteria appear as red and pinkish blankets on the surface of these waters. After blooming, the Trichodesmium erythraeum die, and they turn the sea reddish-brown.

Vast slick of cyanophyte algae visible from space. The algal cells coalesce in strings and clumps. As the cells age, they become buoyant . In calm weather, the cells aggregate into huge slicks. (Australia)

Colors from Cyanobacteria

The relative abundance of phycobilin pigments, the reddish phycoerythrin and the blue phycocyanin, explain the color of cyanobacteria. Microscopically, the blue phycocyanin pigment, the green chlorophyll, and the accessory pigments give rise to blue-green algae. Species of cyanobacteria differ in their ratios of phyocyanin and phycoerythrin.
The appearance of a body of water changes drastically during a "bloom" of cyanobacteria, but the color is also not always due to pigments alone. For example, lakes in the Swiss Alps have been known to be turned blood-red by Oscillatoria rubescens blooms because they have refractive pseudovacuoles (not bounded by a tonoplast membrane) rather than by excessive phycoerythrin. While the Red Sea may have been named for its periodic blooms of Trichodesmium erythraceum, the aquatic disaster, red tide, is not caused by cyanobacteria, but instead by dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta).

Cyanobacteria such as Hammatoidea, Heterohormogonium, Albrightia, Scytonematopsis, Thalopophila, Myxocarcina and Colteronema give thermal springs and geyser pools beautiful color patterns - from red to purple and the complete visible spectrum of colors between.

In ancient sedimentary rock, the transition to an aerobic atmosphere is marked by a shift in the color of the layers from gray to red. These cyanobacteria obviously marked the planet in a very permanent way. The change in rock colors marks a time about 2.5 billion years ago, at the end of the Archaean Era and the beginning of the Proterozoic Time.

Frequently, terrestrial "blooms" produce a gooey slime that is black in color because virtually all wavelengths of light are absorbed by the combination of chlorophyll and the accessory pigments. A disease of coral heads is caused by a cyanobacterium (Phormidium corallactinium) and is know as "black line disease." The rocks in the supralittoral fringe (splash zone) of many tropical shores are covered with epilithic (Scytonema, Gleocapsa and Pleurocapsa) or impregnated with endolithic (Mastigocoleus) cyanobacteria. This zone is often called the "black" zone because of the color of these cyanobacteria.
The first cyanobacteria (Cyanophyta) appear in fossils about 2.8 billion years old, and created the opportunity for evolution of more complex oxygen-reliant organisms. They have different biochemistry than Archaebacteria and were the first dominant organisms to use oxygenic photosynthesis. Their photosystem splits water and uses its electrons and protons to drive photosynthesis. As a byproduct of this new reaction system, oxygen gas (O2) was produced in abundance for the first time. This was a fundamental change in the Earth’s atmosphere, and its impact was observed in all surface layers. As cyanobacteria increased the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, the iron in surface sediments was oxidized into red ferric oxide.

Why is the ocean blue?

Why is the ocean blue?

 

Crater lake, Oregon, USA, is widely known for its intense blue color and spectacular view. The appearance of the lake varies from turquoise to deep navy blue, depending on whether the sky is hazy or clear.

The turquoise color of Garibaldi Lake, British Columbia, Canada.

The inviting blue of a mountain lake or a sea is unique in nature, in that it is caused by vibrational transitions involving hydrogen bonding.

Why is water blue?

Water’s intrinsically blue color is easy to see when the water is sufficiently deep, such as in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas, and in Colorado mountain lakes. Pure water and ice have a pale blue color, which is most noticeable at tropical white-sand beaches or in ice caves in glaciers. (Green colors are usually derived from algae.) The blueness of the water is neither due to light scattering (which gives the sky its blue color) nor dissolved impurities (such as copper). Because the absorption that gives water its color is in the red end of the visible spectrum, one sees blue, the complementary color of orange, when observing light that has passed through several meters of water. Snow and ice has the same intense blue color, scattered back from deep holes in fresh snow.
Blue water is the only known example of a natural color caused by vibrational transitions. In most other cases, color is caused by the interaction of photons of light with electrons. Some of these mechanisms are resonant interactions, such as absorption, emission, and selective reflection. Others are non-resonant, including Rayleigh scattering, interference, diffraction, and refraction. Unlike with water, these mechanisms rely primarily on the interaction of photons with electrons.

The bent water molecule H2O in the free state has three fundamental vibrations. It is helpful to think of metal spheres fixed on strong springs in visualizing these vibrations. The three normal modes are: (a) the symmetrical stretch, (b) the symmetrical bend, and (c) the antisymmetrical bend.

The faint blue color of water is seen in this photo. Here, you look upwards through 3-meter long sealed aluminum tubes filled with purified water. On the left, the faintly bluish tube contains regular (light) water, and at right, the clear tube is empty.

Why vibrational?

Water owes its blueness to selective absorption in the red portion of its visible spectrum. The absorbed photons promote transitions to high overtone and combination states of the nuclear motions of the molecule, i.e. to highly excited vibrations. We know molecular vibrations color water because "heavy" water (which is chemically the same as regular water, but with the two hydrogen atoms replaced with deuterium atoms - an isotope of hydrogen with one extra neutron that makes "heavy" water about 10% heavier) has a similar absorption curve, shifted to higher wavelengths outside of the visible spectrum of light. Heavy water is thus colorless.

These graphs illustrate why water (H2O) is blue, while "heavy" water (D2O) is colorless. The graph gives the visible and near-IR spectrum of H2O and D2O at room temperature. The absorption below 700 nm in wavelength contributes to the color of water (the blue graph). This absorption consists of the short wavelength tail of a band centered at 760 nm, and two weaker bands at 660 nm and 605 nm. The vibrational origin of this visible absorption of H2O is demonstrated by comparison with the spectrum of heavy water, D2O (the gray graph). Heavy water is chemically the same as regular (light) water, but with the two hydrogen atoms (as in H2O) replaced with deuterium atoms (deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen with one extra neutron - the extra neutron that makes "heavy" water about 10% heavier). Heavy water is colorless because all of its corresponding vibrational transitions are shifted to lower energy (higher wavelength) by the increase in isotope mass. For example, the H2O band at 760 nm (the red end of the spectrum) is shifted to approximately 1000 nm in D2O. This is outside the spectrum of visible light, so heavy water has no color.

Overtones (also called harmonics) are secondary vibrations of the string, with wavelengths in integer ratios to the fundamental note.

What is the role of overtones?

In music, a note has a fundamental wavelength and pitch that depend on the nature of the vibrating air column or string. A violin string’s pitch depends first on its vibrating length, and then on its thickness and tension. Secondary notes linked to this fundamental pitch are created when the string vibrates as though split into halves, thirds, quarters, and so on. The overtones have higher pitches than the fundamental pitch, and the note we hear is a combined sound, enriched by the overtones. The relative strength of the fundamental and overtone pitches contributes to the unique sound we associate with each instrument.
Molecular vibrations also have overtones related to their fundamental wavelength. Just as we hear a musical note that is a combination of a fundamental note with its overtones, so molecules may vibrate in complex combinations of their fundamental and overtone vibrations. In water molecules, only the first few overtones make a significant contribution to the overall vibrational energy.

Hydrogen bonding (purple) is a special type of dipole-dipole bond that exists between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to another electronegative atom. In water, the hydrogen atom (white) is covalently attached to the oxygen (red) of a water molecule (about 470 kJ/mol) but has an additional attraction (about 22 kJ/mol) to a neighboring oxygen atom of another water molecule. Hydrogen bonding is weak compared to covalent and ionic bonding.

What is the role of "hydrogen bonding"?

Water is unique among the molecules of nature in its high concentration of O-H bonds and in its plentiful supply. Most importantly, the O-H symmetric (v1) and antisymmetric (v3) vibrational stretching fundamentals are at high enough energy so that a four-quantum overtone transition (v1+ 3v3) occurs just at the red edge of the visible spectrum. When comparing the vibrational transitions of gaseous and liquid water, the liquid phase O-H stretching band is red-shifted (to a lower energy) from the gas phase values of v1 and v3 by several hundred wavenumbers. This shift is primarily the result of hydrogen bonding in the liquid. The near-IR absorption bands of ice (solid phase) are the most red-shifted of all. Hydrogen bonding in water causes the stretching frequencies of H2O to shift to lower values. It is believed that if water did not have hydrogen bonds, it would still be colored, perhaps with a more intense blue than actual water.

Other hydrogen-containing liquids and solids besides water, such as liquid ammonia, could possess traces of bluish color because of vibration and rotation effects. However, water and ice are the only two chemical substances occurring in sufficiently large bulk for a weak coloration to be visible.

Why do we not see colors caused by molecular vibrations in many other substances?

Most molecules have vibrational energies that are lower in frequency (longer in wavelength) than that of water, falling in the range of far infrared or thermal vibrations rather than in the visible light range. The hydrogen atoms in water are very light, and the bonds between hydrogen and oxygen very strong, which shifts them to higher frequencies (with shorter wavelengths), with overtones that lie in the range of visible light. Just as the pitch of a vibrating string is raised if the mass of the string is reduced and the tension applied to the string is increased, so too the highest-frequency vibrations occur with the lightest atoms (hydrogen) when most strongly bonded (to oxygen in water).
Vibrational states, as well as the related rotational states, also can modify the energy of the electronic excitations and are involved in the violet color of iodine vapor, the reddish-brown of bromine, and the green of chlorine.

Purple iodine vapor is produced by heating iodine crystals (combined electronic-vibration-rotation color).

The blue green light of natural gas burning on a kitchen burner emitted by an oxygen-rich gas flame as seen on a kitchen range also involves such combination vibrational, rotational, and electronic excitations in the unstable molecules CH and C2.

What Color is Water?

»The blueness of the oceans can be seen from space. This is a time-lapse video from the Galileo spacecraft’s close pass of the Earth in 1990.

That cool, refreshing glass of water on a hot day may appear colorless, but water is actually a faint blue color. The blue color becomes visible when we look down into, or through, a large volume of water.
We see water in a variety of ways. It may be colored by particles, the presence of bacteria, or by reflecting the world above its surface. Ice and snow may reveal a vivid internal blue. Water itself has an intrinsic blue color that is a result of its molecular structure and its behavior.

Rivers and streams

There are other factors that can affect our perception of the color of water. For example, particles in water can absorb light, scatter light, and reflect light. Light may be absorbed by particles and solutes, as evidenced by the darker color of tea or coffee. Green algae in rivers and streams often lends a blue-green color to the water. Some mountain lakes and streams that contain finely ground rock, such as glacial flour, are turquoise. The surface of water can also reflect skylight.

Marble Canyon viewed from the Navajo Bridge over the Colorado River. The green color of the Colorado River is caused by the algae bloom in the spring snowmelt, while the Red Sea may get its name from the occasional bloom of red Trichodesmium erythraeum algae

Particles in water can scatter light. The Colorado River is often a muddy red color because of suspended reddish silt in the water.

Large bodies of water

It is often easier to appreciate water’s intrinsic blue when looking at large bodies of water, such as lakes, seas and oceans, when we are able to observe how sunlight changes color as it travels through a significant depth of water. When circumstances eliminate the reflection of blue skylight, it may be possible to observe that water is not entirely colorless.

Banff National Park’s Moraine Lake is turquoise because finely ground rock is present. We are able to observe the blue light produced by the water’s absorption, because light is scattered by suspended matter and so returns to the surface. Such scattering can also shift the spectrum of the emerging photons toward the green, a color often seen in water laden with suspended particles.	The surface of seas and lakes often reflect blue skylight, making them appear bluer. The relative contribution of reflected skylight and the light scattered back from the depths depends strongly on the observation angle. In this view of Crater Lake (Oregon, USA), the far side of the lake reflects the sky more, and the near side shows mostly the actual water.
The blueness of water is very apparent when diving. As one goes deeper, lower energy wavelengths penetrate the water less, eventually leaving only blue light from the higher energy end of the spectrum. Even when using an artificial light source, such as a flash, the objects close to the observer appear as their real color, whereas the objects further away appear to be blue.

10 Microorganisms You Can Find in Drinking Water

Warning: This list is not for the faint of heart. There are invisible monsters living in your tap water, creatures that swim and multiply by the billions inside every drop of brisk, refreshing water you slurp down your gullet, tiny demons that…well, okay, they’re actually not all that bad. All water has bacteria and protozoans to some extent, most of them completely harmless. But once you see what they look like up close and personal, you might never get the image out of your head. Here are 10 microorganisms that could be living in your drinking water right now.

10

Cryptosporidium

When cities pump water out to their residents, they put the water through a series of filtration and disinfection steps first. This is obviously beneficial because when you pull water from lakes and rivers it’s most likely going to be filled with bacteria. Filter it, and you can get most of that bacteria out. The important word there is “most,” because even the most advanced filtration techniques are not infallible. And for many people, that means drinking tiny doses of cryptosporidium every day.
Cryptosporisium is what’s known as a protozoan—a single-celled organism—and is most famous for giving people bouts of crippling diarrhea, a condition affectionately referred to as cryptosporidiosis. The protozoa works like a parasite, latching onto the intestines and laying eggs in a person’s fecal matter—and that’s how it spreads: when drinking water becomes contaminated with infected fecal matter, crypto moves on to new hosts. We have safeguards in place to stop it from happening, but on a good day it only stops 99 percent of the cryptosporidium. In 1998 a crypto bloom broke out in Sydney, Australia. Officials noticed the rise, but didn’t act for a few days because the levels were still “within acceptable health limits.” That means that there are acceptable levels for a diarrhea-inducing parasite that comes from poop in your water.

9

Anabaena sp.

This pleasant looking slinky is Anabaena circinalis, a cyanobacteria that lives in freshwater reservoirs around the world, notably Australia, Europe, Asia, New Zealand, and North America. Cyanobacteria like this are believed to be some of the first multicellular organisms on earth, and as such have evolved to do some very curious things. In the case of Anabaena spp., those things are the production of neurotoxins. The discovery of Anatoxin-a was one of the first cases of a neurotoxin being produced by cyanobacteria, and we found out in a big way: An outbreak in the 1950′s got into the drinking water supply and was responsible for a series of mass die-offs at cattle farms across the U.S.
In Australia, freshwater Anabaena bacteria have been found producing saxitoxins, a type of neurotoxin that causes respiratory arrest, followed by death. The military has even gone so far as to classify saxitoxins as Schedule 1 substances with “no practical use outside of weapons manufacture.” Fortunately, cyanobacteria are one of the easier microorganisms to filter out of drinking water. For now.

8 Rotifers

Rotifers are a relatively common microorganism that can be found pretty much everywhere in the world. And they’re also one of the most common drinking water contaminants, despite growing as large as 1mm at times (which is hardly microscopic—you can see that with your naked eye). Some of them swim, others crawl around with an inchworm motion, but none of them are known to be harmful to humans. And that’s good, because they show up in tap water fairly often.
What’s not good is that the presence of rotifers in a municipal water supply usually means that there is a problem with the filtration system—organisms that large should not be able to make it through. And rotifers are also known to act as hosts to protozoans (like cryptosporidium) and bacteria. That leads to a mirrored benefit, of sorts: rotifers can be used as a warning system to let officials know that there’s something wrong with their systems, but by the time they’re seen, there could be other things that got through as well.

7Copepods

The link in the previous entry pointed to a Connecticut public health bulletin meant to advise residents who might find tiny bugs swimming around in their tap water. It addresses two types of near-microscopic invertebrates: rotifers, and copepods. Of the two, copepods are larger, and possibly even more common. They can grow up to 2mm (double the size of rotifers), and they’re actually a type of crustacean, sort of like miniature shrimp. And they’re everywhere.
In the Connecticut incident, which happened in 2009, residents began finding thousands of them in small samples of water. One resident compared them to “tiny polliwogs,” and stated, “It was completely disgusting. We were drinking them, washing out clothes in them, and it was just completely nasty.” But if anything, copepods are beneficial because they often feed on toxins. Again though, the fact that they can make it through the filtration system means plenty of smaller bacteria can too.

6E. Coli

We all know about E. coli, or Escherichia coli, a bacteria that lives in, on, and around fecal matter. It’s been publicized more times than you can shake a stick at, until by now it’s practically a legend of the bacteria world. From food to water to even more food, it’s hard to get away from. Which is why it’s sort of disconcerting to find out that all drinking water invariably has E. coli in it; it’s just kept down to levels that are considered “safe.”
Here’s the data sheet on drinking water contaminants from the Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, of the United States. According to that sheet, E. coli is acceptable as long as it doesn’t appear in more than 5 percent of the water samples collected in a given month. So if the municipality tests their water 100 times in a month, 5 of those samples can be infected with E. coli, but the water will still be permitted to go out to the city’s residents. And once you get down to decimal places of hundredths or thousandths of a percent, you are pretty much always guaranteed to find some E. coli swimming and playing in your water.

5Rhizopus stolonifer

In the world at large, the more colorful something is, the more fun you can probably have with it. And based on that logic, these mycotoxic mold spores are just a big barrel of laughs. Until they start showing up in drinking water; then you have problems. Rhizopus stolonifer is more commonly known as black bread mold; leave a piece of bread out in the open, and this will be just one of the molds that take over it.
Widely considered the most common fungus in the world, it’s not surprising that this mold shows up in tap water as well. Fungi reproduce with spores which, much like flower pollen, float through the air until they find a suitable place to land and grow. In 2006, a study looked at the concentrations of mold spores in tap water, and found that Rhizopus stolonifer appeared 2.9 percent of the time, which, arguably, is fairly low in the realm of contaminants (remember, E. coli can legally show up nearly twice as often). It’s believed to release toxins that are harmful to humans, although they’re only dangerous in higher concentrations.

4Naegleria fowleri

This organism doesn’t look as terrifying as some of the other creatures on this list—really it just looks like a few mold splotches. It’s actually an amoeba, though, and it eats brains. To be scientific about it, the amoeba attacks a person’s nervous system by entering through their nasal cavities, killing 98 percent of its victims.
N. fowleri infections are rare, mostly because it isn’t effective if it’s consumed orally. But in 2011, two Louisiana residents died from meningoencephalitis (the disease caused by Naegleria) after making a nasal flush out of salt and tap water. When the deaths were investigated, the brain eating amoeba was found on the bathtub, shower heads, and sink faucets—the house was literally covered in it. Despite this case, most infections aren’t caused by tap water infected with N. fowleri. No, usually people get it by swimming in lakes and rivers. Have you ever accidentally sucked water up your nose while swimming?

3Legionella Pneumophila

With a name like Legionella, this bacteria already sounds dangerous. And since it was named after an American Legion convention in 1976 where it was responsible for 34 deaths and a total of 221 infections, that might be a fair assumption. The condition caused by L. pneumophila is now called Legionnaires’ disease, and it sends 18,000 people to the hospital every year. And it comes from, you guessed it, contaminated water. Symptoms of Legionnaires’ disease include confusion, fevers of up to 107 F (41.5 C), loss of coordination, vomiting, diarrhea, and muscle aches. It shows up sporadically; in 2001, more than 700 people in Spain were infected in one centralized area.
As if L. pneumophila wasn’t already dangerous enough, the U.S. military decided to take a crack at weaponizing it, leading to a genetically modified version with a 100 percent kill rate. But even if you’re not on a government hit list, you would do well to stay away from water in general.

2Chaetomium sp.

Here’s another type of mold, and one that looks slightly more terrifying than the psychedelic funhouse in number five. Like black bread mold, Chaetomium species are fairly common in everyday life, usually floating through the air in moist locations, which can encompass everything from a swamp to your bathroom ceilings. This appears in tap water fairly rarely, but when it is there it usually makes the water taste and smell slightly “off”—normal signs to stop drinking a glass of water in any case.
Chaetomium sp. spores aren’t particularly dangerous, although in some cases they can cause an infection known as phaeohyphomycosis, which is something you definitely do not want to Google. They can also present a hazard to people who are allergic to the spores, and even that typically only happens with chronic exposure.

1Salmonella Enterica

One of the first things we learn as children is that you always cook chicken, and if you handle it raw you better scrub those hands nice and good. The reason, of course, is salmonella, which has such a long history of infection it’s not even possible to link to them all here. Usually salmonella shows up on food such as beef, spinach, and of course, chicken (hedgehogs too, surprisingly). Less commonly, salmonella causes outbreaks through none other than our friendly neighborhood drinking water.
In 2008, Colorado tap water was responsible for 79 cases of salmonella poisoning, which caused fevers and vomiting. People with weak immune systems, like the elderly, are especially susceptible to salmonella. Another study looked at the water supply of Togo, Africa, and found 26 cases of salmonella contamination, suggesting that developing countries are at a greater risk for bacterial infections from drinking water. It’s sort of common sense, but it’s beneficial to have figures to see what exactly is causing illnesses in these areas.
As Benjamin Franklin once said, “In wine there is wisdom, in beer there is freedom, in water there is bacteria.” We’ll take the wine.

Microorganisms, Bacteria and Viruses

Microorganisms, Bacteria and Viruses

Microbiological contamination of water has long been a concern to the public. From the 1920's-1960's, the bacillus which causes typhoid fever was considered a major problem in the water supply (1). Once it was eradicated, new microbes were present to take its place. In parts of the United States, concern is inreasing due to outbreaks of coliform bacteria, giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, and hepatitis A (1,2,3). Some of these are bacteria, while others are viruses or protozoa. If you are on a public water supply system, and you are concerned about the possibility of microbial contamination, contact your water company. If you use a private water  supply, have your water tested by a reputable lab. Treatments do exist for microbial contamination, but, it is important to know what is present before treatment is begun.
Coliform Bacteria
Coliform bacteria  live in soil or vegetation and in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. Coliforms enter water supplies from the direct disposal of waste into streams or lakes, or from runoff from wooded areas, pastures, feedlots, septic tanks, and sewage plants into streams or groundwater. In addition, coliforms can enter an individual house via backflow of water from a contaminated source, carbon filters, or leaking well caps that allow dirt and dead organisms to fall into the water (2).
Coliforms are not a single type of bacteria, but a grouping of bacteria that includes many strains, such as E. coli. They are ubiquitous in nature, and many types are harmless. Therefore, it is not definitive that coliform bacteria will cause sickness. Many variables such as the specific type of bacteria present, and your own immune system's effectiveness will determine if you will get sick. In fact, many people become immune to bacteria that is present in their own water (2). Guests on the other hand, may not have developed an immunity to the water and may experience some gastrointestinal distress such as diarrhea or gastroenteritis (2).Total coliforms are the standard by which microbial contamination is measured. Coliforms will be one of the first bacteria present in the water should contamination occur, and they will be in much larger quantities than some pathogenic microbes that may be present. Therefore, coliforms act as indicators of possible contamination. The presence of coliform bacteria does not necessarily mean that pathogenic microbes are also present. However, if large coliform quantities are detected, the presence of other microbes should be checked for. If you are a private water consumer and concerned about your water supply, you can obtain more information about protecting your private water supply from the EPA. Generally, testing is done once a year.  However it may also be wise to test the water for the following reasons:

1. A new well or pump has been installed
2. An old well or pipe has been repaired or replaced
3. Family or guests are have reoccurring gastrointestinal distress
4. An infant is living in the home
5. A new home is being purchased, and the quality of water needs to be determined
6. The effectiveness of a water treatment system needs to be tested
7. The water has had a change in taste, color or odor (2)

Testing of your water can be done by a local testing laboratory, or by a county or state health laboratory.
If your water is found to be contaminated, the best treatment is generally disinfection or filtration. Other options involve UV irradiation and ozonation. A water professional can help you select the best treatment (2).
If you would like to learn more about coliform bacteria, The National Groundwater Association is a good place to start.
Giardia Lamblia
Giardia has become more prevalent in the past few years as a waterborne disease, and a few large outbreaks that have occurred in the U.S. (3). Giardia are flagellated protozoa that are parasitic in the intestines of humans and animals (4). They have two stages, one of which is a cyst form that can be ingested from contaminated water. Once the cyst enters the stomach, the organism is released into the gastrointestinal tract where it will adhere to the intestinal wall. Eventually the protozoa will move into the large intestine where they encyst again and are excreted in the feces and back into the environment (4).
Once in the body, the giardia causes giardiasis, a disease characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, weight loss, and general gastrointestinal distress. These symptoms last for about a week, however some people can undergo a more chronic infection with similar symptoms and an even greater degree of weight loss (3). Giardiasis is rarely fatal (6), and can be treated medicinally by quinacrine, metronidazole, and furazolidone (3).
Giardia enters the water supply via contamination by fecal material. The fecal material can enter the water from:

• Sewage discharged into the water via cross contamination of sewage and water lines
• Sewage directly discharged from small sewage plants into lakes or streams
• Sewage discharged into lakes or streams from cabin toilets
• Animals carrying the cysts, depositing their fecal material directly into the water
• Rainfall moving the cysts deposited from animals on the soil into a body of water (3).

Once in these water bodies, unsuspecting hikers or campers may drink infected water, exposing themselves to the cysts. Water from these lakes or streams may also be transported to municipal water supplies. If the municipal system uses sand filtration in addition to chlorination, the cysts should be removed. If chlorination is used without filtration, the chance for a giardia infection increases (4). It is estimated that 20-65 million Americans are at risk due to this lack of filtration of surface water (3,5). It has been suggested that 40-45% of giardia cases are associated with exposure to unfiltered water (4). Other sources of exposure include unsanitary conditions at day care facilities, exposure while traveling in developing countries, hikers or campers drinking infected surface water, and sexual practices involving fecal exposure (4).
If water is contaminated with giardia, it is possible to kill the cysts by simply boiling the water. If you are on a public water system, a notice will be sent out should coliform and giardia be present at unsafe levels. People on private water systems should not be concerned as most giardia is from untreated surface water; however there is a possibility that sewage lines from a septic tank may infect your water. Contamination from livestock waste may also be of some concern. If you are in doubt, it is possible to have your well water tested for bacteria and protozoa by laboratories in your area (2).
Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan parasite that causes cryptosporidiosis, which has gained notoriety in the past five years. In 1993, over 400,000 people in Milwaukee, Wisconsin became ill with it after drinking contaminated water (6). Since this outbreak, there has been a greater impetus to remove the cryptosporidium from municipal water supplies.
Cryptosporidium is spread by the transmission of oocysts   via drinking water  which has been contaminated with infected fecal material.  Oocysts from humans are infective to humans and many other mammals, and many animals act as reservoirs of oocysts which can infect humans. Once inside of its host, the oocyst breaks, releasing four movable spores that attach to the walls of the gastrointestinal tract, and eventually form oocysts again that can be excreted (4). Symptoms occur 2 to 10 days after infection (6). These symptoms include diarrhea, headache, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, and a low fever. There is no treatment against the protozoa, although it is possible to treat the symptoms. After about 1-2 weeks, the symptoms subside as the immune system stops the infection. However, for persons with a compromised immune system such as infants, seniors, those with AIDS, or transplantees, cryptosporidiosis may become life threatening (4,6).
Cryptosporidium infected fecal material enters the water supply either from cross contamination of sewage lines with water lines, or surface water infected with contaminated animal waste. Water treatment processes that utilize coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and chlorination may remove it. However, due to its small size and its resistance to chlorination, these treatments may not work (4). If cryptosporidium is a concern in your area, boiling your water for at least one minute is an effective way to kill it (6).
As with giardia, if you are on a public system you should receive a notice if cryptosporidium levels have increased. However, if you are on a private system using a well, contamination may occur from a leaking or improperly placed septic tank, or animal waste, so it may be a good idea to test for total coliforms. If the amount of coliforms are low, then more than likely cryptosporidium is not a problem (2).
If you would like to obtain more information about cryptosporidium, including how to prevent it, the website at the Centers for Disease Control will be able to help you out.
Hepatitis A:
Hepatitis A is an enteric virus that is very small. It can be transferred through contaminated water, causing outbreaks (5). The virus is excreted by a person carrying it, and if the sewage contaminates the water supply, then the virus is carried in the water until it is consumed by a host. Symptoms such as an inflamed liver, accompanied by lassitude, anorexia, weakness, nausea, fever and jaundice are common. A mild case may only require a week or two of rest, while a severe case can result in liver damage and possible death (4). Generally, water systems utilize chlorination, preceded by coagulation, flocculation, settling and filtration to remove the virus (5). Boiling your water will also inactivate the virus (3,6). Should you be using a private water system, you may want to check your well water for coliform bacteria. If there is a large amount of bacteria present, there is most likely contamination from sewage, and the water needs to be treated (2).
Helminths:
Helminths are parasitic worms that grow and multiply in sewage and wet soil (5). They enter the body by burrowing through the skin, or by ingestion of the worm in one of its many lifecycle phases (7). The eggs as well as the adult and larval forms of the worms are large enough to be trapped during conventional water treatments, so they tend not be a problem in water systems (7). In addition, most of these helminths are not waterborne, so chances of infection are minimized (4). Drinking water is usually not tested for these, as they are not considered to be much of an issue in the United States; they are more prevalent in developing countries (4).

Why India needs a conservation act

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India should reject its protection philosophy, embrace conservation and bridge gaps between people and officials

I have just returned from an extended tour of our jungles where, as usual, much is being spoken; little is being done to conserve our wilderness. While camping near the Corbett National Park, our cook, also the village leader, was called in every night to help with the elephant menace in his hamlet. He narrated numerous stories of tigers killing humans. Most kills were recent. The so-called man-animal conflict was at its worst and even the forests where I work in southern India we were seeing a spate of escalating conflicts between local people and officials. This got me thinking. Was something seriously amiss with our wilderness policies? On further thought, the answer dawned on me. India does not have its own standalone conservation act. We have the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972; why did we choose not to have the Wildlife (Conservation) Act of 1972 instead?

The first thing that comes to mind is that in conservation one needs to be in constant dialogue with all the players, and certainly our forest officials want no such thing. Dialogue makes one answerable, vulnerable and transparent, actions alien if not loathsome to officials.

Conservation is solely achieved through building trust and respect with all parties concerned. Though transparent dialogue is a crucial part of that trust-building process, the people living near our protected forests are not in dialogue with the officials. This has led to a severe conflict.

‘Protection’ has a very minor but essential part in effective ‘Conservation’. ‘Conservation’ comes first, followed by ‘Protection’. Wherever conservation fails, protection is supposed to kick in. That’s the way it is the world over, except India. When the African countries can have their own conservation laws, why in heavens name doesn’t India have one which stands on its own two feet? Instead of a Wildlife Conservation Act, we have a National Tiger Conservation Authority tucked away, hidden deep in the recess of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. But it has only a handful of pages that make a veiled attempt to address the term ‘conservation’.

India is regarded as one of the most corrupt countries. Add to this the fact that our parks and sanctuaries have extensive boundaries, which, in most places remain porous. We have large sensitive forested regions of great value that cannot be effectively patrolled or protected. We have neither the funds nor the political will or the manpower to protect these expansive areas. These areas need to be conserved.

Further, protection is an exclusionary form of management that pushes people away. After more than six decades of Independence, it’s clear that we need to embrace the people living around our protected forests and convert them from being a liability to an asset. Only conservation can do that, not protection. Since 1947, officials and locals have drifted apart at an alarming rate and today a chasm exists between them. This has led to severe conflict. There being no effective dialogue between them, locals in general believe officials to be corrupt and officials on their part think most locals to be smugglers and poachers. This further escalates the conflict.

The officials have lived in denial of such conflicts and over time, instead of calling such a conflict the local man-authority conflict, have evolved a unique term for their failures and called it the man-animal conflict. How could they be answerable for the actions of animals, they would ask whenever the need arose.

It is clear that unless India rejects its protection philosophy and embraces conservation and bridges this gap between people living on the fringes of its forests and the officials and converts these people into assets by including them in the management of her sensitive regions, we can kiss our wilderness goodbye.

We have arrived at this alarming situation because it takes 10 to 15 years, if not a couple of generations, to start the dialogue process leading to effective conservation. Our officers hold their posts for but a couple of years, and fail to share the larger vision. Also because the process of dialogue and trust-building that feeds conservation at most times remains intangible, most funding towards wildlife management gets funnelled into protection. Efforts in any protection activity are tangible and can be measured for the disbursement of funds — examples are anti-poaching camps, vehicles, arms, fences, trenches, roads, fire lines, staff quarters and so on.

Conservation acts suffer because they cannot be measured thus. Conservation can best be described as the ‘human’s ethical pursuit of letting things be in nature’. This natural balance is difficult to maintain as man interferes with nature without truly understanding the consequences. Sadly, whenever man plays god he destroys without having the power to recreate. The writing is on the wall. Forest officials must stop hiding behind the so-called man-animal conflict and the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. If we are to conserve our wilderness, we need a hard-hitting yet sensitive conservation act that also addresses, as an integral part of conservation, the local people-authority conflict upfront.

PM’s remarks at the 102nd Indian Science Congress AND Congratulation to Prof S.P. Trivedi Sir

The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, has called for efforts to ensure that science, technology and innovation reach the poorest, the remotest and the most vulnerable person. He said that for a prosperous future for India, we need to put science, technology and innovation at the top of national priorities. In his address to the 102nd Indian Science Congress in Mumbai today, the Prime Minister said more resilient agriculture, appropriate and affordable technologies for rural areas, improving healthcare, making clean technology affordable, and making India a leading manufacturing nation and a hub for knowledge and technology-intensive industries, were some of the key objectives before Indian scientists.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfmTktspO_E

The Prime Minister said a nation`s progress and its human development are linked to science and technology. He added that China`s emergence as the second biggest global economy is in parallel to its rise to the second place in science and technology activities.

The Prime Minister said, that a discussion on science and human development, cannot be divorced from the questions of political decisions; social choices; and of equity, ethics and access. He said human development has been the larger purpose and the driving force of India`s scientific pursuits, and science has helped shape modern India.

The Prime Minister appreciated Indian scientists for rising to the occasion “whenever the world shut its door on us.” He said that when the world sought our collaboration, they reached out with the openness that is inherent in our society. He also lauded Indian scientists for putting Mangalyaan in the Mars orbit in the first attempt, and saving thousands of lives through their accurate prediction of Cyclone Hudhud.

The Prime Minister said that when he speaks of ease of doing business in India, he also wants to pay equal attention to the ease of doing research and development in India. He said funding proposals must not take too long to clear, and scientific departments must have flexibility of funding decisions based on the uncertainties inherent in research activities. He also called for clear regulatory policies for research and development in areas like biotechnology, nanoscience, agriculture and clinical research.

The Prime Minister said each government department should have an officer focusing on science and technology relating to its area of work; and, allocate a percentage of its budget for such activities. “We have to place the university system at the cutting edge of the research and development activities in the country,” he added. He said universities must be freed from the clutches of excessive regulation and cumbersome procedures.

The Prime Minister called upon Indian industry to step up investments in science and technology in its own interest. He said India`s own pharmaceutical industry has carved out a place for itself in the world, because it invests significantly in research.

He welcomed the initiatives of Department of Science and Technology for involving thousands of children and youth in science and technology.

The Prime Minister said India must “restore the pride and prestige of science and scientists in our nation; revive the romance for science in society; rekindle the love for it in our children; and, encourage our scientists – to dream, imagine and explore.”

The Prime Minister began his address by paying homage to eminent scientist Vasant Gowarikar, who passed away recently.

Text of PM Shri Narendra Modi’s address at the 102nd Indian Science Congress

January 3, 2015 Author: admin

मैं अपनी बात शुरू करने से पहले, सबसे पहले श्री वसंत गोवारिकर जो हमारे देश के गणमान्य वैज्ञानिक थे और आज ही हमारे बीच नहीं रहे। मैं इसी धरती की संतान और भारत को विज्ञान जगत में आगे बढ़ाने में जिन्होंने बहुत अहम भूमिका निभाई थी ऐसे श्रीमान वसंत गोवारिकर जो को हृदय अंतःकरण पूर्वक श्रृद्धांजलि देता हूं।

Ladies and Gentlemen,

It is a great honour to participate in the Indian Science Congress. I thank University of Mumbai for hosting this Congress.

I had the opportunity to participate in the Congress as Chief Minister of Gujarat. I am delighted to return here after ten years.

I greatly admire the rich history of this hundred-year old institution.

I feel humbled by the work that scientists do. And, I find science and technology an invaluable ally in governance and development.

Human civilization has advanced because of the basic human spirit of enquiry and quest for understanding our universe and world.

It is a search driven by the belief in what our Vedas described as, Satye Sarvam Pratisthanam – Everything is established in Truth.

Science may be the product of human brain. But, it is also driven by the compassion of human heart – the desire to make human life better.

We have here with us Nobel Laureates, whose work in science has given new hope against dreaded diseases.

We also have one whose own understanding of social science gave the poorest a life of hope, opportunity and dignity.

Science and technology has helped reduce poverty and advance prosperity; fight hunger and improve nutrition; conquer diseases, improve health and give a child a better chance to survive; connect us to our loved ones and the world; spread education and awareness; and, given us clean energy that can make our habitat more sustainable.

A nation`s progress and its human development are linked to science and technology. In more recent times, China`s emergence as the second biggest global economy is in parallel to its rise to the second place in science and technology activities.

Science and technology can also remove national barriers, unify the world and advance peace. It can bring nations, rich and poor, in a shared effort to address global challenges.

But, we also know that it can increase inequality, make wars more lethal and damage our environment. Sometimes, we learn about their consequences later, as we did on climate change; sometimes, these are the result of our own choices.

For example, information technology was meant to increase efficiency and productivity; sometimes, however, its various distractions can easily overpower us! How often do we sit in meetings and cannot resist the temptation to catch up on our messages!

So, when we speak of science and human development, we cannot divorce it from the questions of political decisions; social choices; and of equity, ethics and access.

Human development has been the larger purpose and the driving force of Indian scientific pursuits. And, science has helped shape modern India.

At the dawn of freedom, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru placed science and technology at the heart of national development. Our scientists launched pioneering research and built outstanding institutions with modest resources that continue to serve us well.

Since then, our scientists have placed us at the forefront of the world in many areas.

Whenever the world shut its door on us, our scientists responded with the zeal of a national mission. When the world sought our collaboration, they reached out with the openness that is inherent in our society.

They have alleviated some of our most acute and pressing challenges of human development. They helped us overcome dependence on others for such basic needs as food. They have secured our borders; supported industrial progress; and, given our people a life of opportunities and dignity.

Our scientists put Mangalyaan in the Mars orbit in the first attempt – I must congratulate Radhakrishnan`s team – and their accurate prediction of Cyclone Hudhud saved thousands of lives; our nuclear scientists work for our energy security, and they have also placed India at the Asian forefront in cancer research and treatment.

Our achievements give us pride, but they do not blind us to the enormous challenges that we face in India.

We are at yet another moment of expectation and excitement, as we were at the birth of independent India.

There is a mood of optimism for change in the country; the energy to pursue it; and, confidence to achieve it.

But, the dreams we all share for India will depend as much on science and technology as it will on policy and resources -

To make our agriculture more resilient and yield more; to develop appropriate and affordable technologies for rural areas;

To do more from every drop of water; and, explore the potential of marine resources

To preserve our biodiversity; and keep our environment clean

To improve healthcare and develop medicines and medical devices that is within the reach of poorest;

To make clean energy affordable and its use more efficient;

To use technology to realize our dream of housing and sanitation for all;

To find our own solutions to make our cities cleaner and more habitable

To turn waste into wealth and resources for sustainable infrastructure of the future;

To use internet to improve human development

To make India a leading manufacturing nation; and a hub for knowledge and technology-intensive industries.

To me, the arms of science, technology and innovation must reach the poorest, the remotest and the most vulnerable person.

This is an enterprise of national importance in which each of us – Government, Industry, National Laboratories, Universities and research institutions – have to work together.

Too often, a discussion on science and technology is reduced to a question of budgets. It is important; and I am confident that it will continue to grow.

But, our own achievements have shown that very often a need and vision and passion are more important than resource for success.

And, it is how we use resources that will determine how effective we are in making science and technology work for us.

Our development challenges will naturally shape our strategic priorities in science and technology.

Even as we focus on some key areas, we should not confine research and development to a few pre-determined paths.

And, it is as important to focus on basic research as on research and development and innovation.

We should also recognize that science is universal, but technology can be local.

If we incorporate traditional and local knowledge, systems and technologies, we may develop more appropriate, effective, affordable and sustainable solutions that contribute immensely to human development and progress.

As the major source of science and technology efforts in the country, Government must do its part.

When I speak of ease of doing business in India, I also want to pay equal attention to the ease of doing research and development in India.

Funding proposals must not take too long to clear; meeting application requirement should not become more complex than research; approval process should not become a deterrent for international conference; and, our scientific departments must have flexibility of funding decisions based on the uncertainties inherent in research activities.

We want our scientists and researchers to explore the mysteries of science, not of government procedures.

We want them to consider publications, not government approvals, to be the epitome of their success.

We must also have clear regulatory policies for research and development in areas like biotechnology, Nano-Science, agriculture and clinical research.

We should ensure that our strong intellectual property regime continues to work effectively and provides the right balance between private incentives and social good.

Further, not just scientific departments, but every other department in the Government should see how to apply science and technology and promote research to improve their work. Each should have an officer focusing on science and technology relating to its area of work; and, allocate a percentage of its budget for such activities. We have begun this experience with Space technology.

Investments in science and technology activities should also become part of the expenditure on corporate social responsibility – to be funded directly or through an autonomous fund.

We also need to foster a strong culture of collaboration between institutions and across disciplines to take advantage of developments, innovations and expertise in diverse areas. My impression is that this is far from the ideal in India

I will ask our ministries to make collaborations a critical requirement for their institutions and for supporting funding requests for research.

We have to place the university system at the cutting edge of the research and development activities in the country. Our investments in science and technology are far too concentrated in the agencies of the Central Government and must become more broad-based.

Our universities must be freed from the clutches of excessive regulation and cumbersome procedures. They must have a higher degree of academic freedom and autonomy; and, there should be as much emphasis on research as on teaching.

In turn, the universities must also subscribe to the highest academic and research standards and accountability. This includes thorough peer review.

We have to rapidly expand our higher education sector; yet, our existing institutions face shortage of faculty.

We have a large pool of outstanding scientists and engineers working in central institutions and agencies. I want them to spend some time each year, teaching and guiding Ph.D students at a university.

Our industry must also step up investments in science and technology in its own interest.

India`s own pharmaceutical industry has carved out a place for itself in the world, because it invests significantly in research.

Indeed, our long term global competitiveness will depend not on replicating what others have done, but through a process of sustained development and innovation.

There is a growing trend of international collaboration in research and development, not just among business enterprises, but equally among researchers and scholars at universities and laboratories. We should take full advantage of this.

For this reason, I have placed science and technology at the forefront of our diplomatic engagement. As I have travelled abroad, I have personally sought out scientists to explore collaborations in areas like clean energy, agriculture, biotechnology, medicine and healthcare.

We have built excellent partnerships with all leading nations to address the grand challenges of the world today. I have also offered our expertise to our neighbours and other developing countries.

I have often spoken of skill development for our youth.

Our future will be secure and our global leadership possible, if we also prepare the next generation of world class scientists, technologists and innovators.

School education in science and mathematics should become more creative and stimulating.

Let us also use Internet to bring the best of our scientists in direct contact with our children and our youth.

Digital connectivity should become as much a basic right as access to school.

I welcome the initiatives of Department of Science and Technology for involving thousands of children and youth in science and technology.

It is not surprising that our young minds are winning international competitions and 12 of them have minor comets named after them!

Our children should seek role model in scientists as much as in sportsmen. Their parents should feel as much pride in their children seeking a future in science as in business or civil service.

For this, we need to communicate the power and possibilities of science better.

Let us, for example, make science and technology the theme of Republic Day parade in the near future.

We need to celebrate our scientific achievements as much as we rejoice in our success in other areas.

We should give young participants and winners in science fairs maximum public recognition and sustained support of the government.

I would personally love to meet the best of our young scientists.

In conclusion, let me say for a safe, sustainable, prosperous future for India; or global leadership in a knowledge and technology intensive world, we need to put science, technology and innovation at the top of national priorities.

I am confident that we can do it.

We in India are the inheritors of a thriving tradition of Indian science and technology since ancient times. Mathematics and medicine; metallurgy and mining; calculus and textiles; architecture and astronomy – the contribution the Indian civilization to human knowledge and advancement has been rich and varied.

We can draw inspiration and confidence from our numerous successes over the past six decades in difficult circumstances; the strength of our many institutions; and, India`s rich talent in science, reflected in the five distinguished Indian scientists, whom we have just honoured.

Above all, we must restore the pride and prestige of science and scientists in our nation; revive the romance for science in society; rekindle the love for it in our children; and, encourage our scientists – to dream, imagine and explore.

You will have no better supporter than me. In turn, I seek your help in transforming India.

Thank you very much, wish you all the best.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi to inaugurate 102 Indian Science Congress in Mumbai

Mumbai, Dec 24: Prime Minister Narendra Modi is scheduled to inaugurate the 102nd Indian Science Congress here on January 3, it was officially announced here today. Preparations are in full swing at the University of Mumbai’s Kalina Campus to host the 102nd Indian Science Congress from January 3 to January 7, 2015. Around 12,000 delegates are expected to attend this mega event which would also see the presence of seven Nobel laureates and four Nobel-equivalent prize winning scientists.

The theme for this year’s Indian Science Congress is ‘Science and Technology for Human Development’. Modi would inaugurate the Indian Science Congress 2015 on January 3 morning, in the presence of Governor of Maharashtra Vidyasagar Rao, Maharashtra Chief Minister Devendra Fadanvis, Union Minister for Science and Technology Harshvardhan and Union Human Resources Minister Smriti Irani, Vice Chancellor of University of Mumbai Rajan Welukar told reporters here today.

“The Indian Science Congress is returning to Mumbai after 45 years. The last time the event was held here was in 1969. By bringing the Indian Science Congress to Mumbai, we want to showcase Mumbai as a science city as well, besides India’s financial capital,” Welukar said. Mumbai is home to world renowned institutes like the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Indian Institute of Technology and Tata Memorial Centre among others, he said. All these institutes would actively participate in the Indian Science Congress, he said.

Besides the main sessions and symposia, a Children?s Science Congress, a Women’s Science Congress and a Science Communicators’ Meet would also be held as parallel events. The Children’s Science Congress would be inaugurated by former President of India, A P J Abdul Kalam. A science exhibition would be organised at the MMRDA. Grounds in the Bandra-Kurla Complex, to showcase various science and technology innovations by Indian firms and organisations.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) would also participate in the mega exhibition. The Congress sessions would bring together eminent scientists as well as research scholars to popularise science and foster a scientific temperament. The sessions would cover a wide variety of topics like agriculture and forestry, veterinary sciences, earth science, environment, engineering, information and communication, computer sciences, mathematics, medicine, biology, physics and plant sciences, among others.

Other themes of interest include science and technology in SAARC countries, biodiversity conservation, space application, genetically modified crops, use of modern biotechnology in agriculture as well as clean energy systems for the future. A session would be dedicated to ‘Innovation and Make In India’ initiative, while another on ‘Ancient Indian sciences’ would be attended by Union Minister for Environment Prakash Javadekar.

2001 Nobel Prize winner in Medicine Paul Nurse from London, 2002 Chemistry Nobel Prize winner Kurt Wuthrich from Switzerland, 2009 Chemistry Nobel laureate Ada E Yonath from Israel, 2013 Nobel Prize winner in Medicine, Randy Schekman of University of California, Berkeley, are among the guests expected to attend.

2014 Nobel Peace Prize winner Kailash Satyarthi and 2006 Nobel Peace Prize winner Mohammed Yunus of Bangladesh would also be present. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Chairman K Radhakrishnan, Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India, 2013 Nobel Prize winner in Medicine, Randy Schekman of University of California, Berkeley, DG, Indian Council of Medical Research, V M Katoch, eminent nuclear scientist Anil Kakodkar are some of the other big names scheduled to attend the Indian Science Congress 2015.

University of Mumbai has made arrangements to webcast some of the key sessions of the Indian Science Congress, Welukar said. A daily web bulletin covering various aspects of the Indian Science Congress would be compiled and published by students of the varsity’s Mass Communication Department.