Dr. Manmohan Singh – An Economist And A Gentleman

Dr. Manmohan Singh – An Economist And A Gentleman

Rachit Seth 09-26-2013 Economy

 

The post liberalization era India has witnessed unprecedented growth. Dr. Manmohan Singh, the then Finance Minister is credited for initiating and scripting India’s growth story since 1991. On 24th July 1991, India’s finance minister Dr. Manmohan Singh wound up his historic Union budget speech with Victor Hugo’s famous words “No power on earth can stop an idea whose time has come. I suggest to this august House that the emergence of India as a major economic power in the world happens to be one such idea.” This was his idea of India.

In the 9 years of UPA – the Prime Minister Dr. Singh has lived upto his words. India is on the verge of becoming a super power in the world .

 

 

Indian economy is now the 3rd largest economy in the world. The efforts of our humble ,soft spoken and hardworking economist Prime Minister has helped India become an economic power house

 

 

He has assured India’s place at the high table of the G 20 economies of the world. 

Under the Congress-led UPA government’s stewardship over the last 9 years, India has not only become a nearly two trillion-dollar economy, achieving the fastest pace of growth in our history, we have also seen the benefits of growth percolate deeper to the Aam Aadmi.

The period when the UPA government has been in power has seen the highest growth rate in our history as India grew at an average rate of 8.2% between 2004-05 and 2011-12. Even as the world went through economic downturns due to the financial crisis of 2007-08, India continued to grow, thrive and prosper under the wise leadership of Dr Manmohan Singh, widely recognised as one of the world’s foremost economists.

 

 

Our macroeconomic fundamentals remained strong despite global economic crises of 2008-09. When most developed nations faced recession, India is was growing at more than 8% Under the NDA government the Indian economy grew from USD 416 billion in 1998 to USD 600 billion in 2004 (a jump of 44%), and claimed that India was “shining”. In nine years of UPA rule, the country has moved from USD 617.6 Billion to USD 1.84 Trillion, up by three times. It is clear that if there has been a growth take-off in India, it has been under the UPA government. (Source:  http://bit.ly/k4xE1y) 

At constant prices (2004-05 levels), which would help us look at the size of the economy discounting the impact of inflation, the Indian growth story looks even more amazing. The total GDP of the country stood at Rs 27,77,813 crore in 2003-2004, up 33% from the 1998-99 figures of Rs 20,87,828 crore and the NDA went into the 2004 Lok Sabha elections with ‘India Shining.’

If we read Dr. Manmohan Singh’s budget speech of 1991-92 again and quote. 

He said “In highlighting the significance of reform, my purpose is not to give a fillip to mindless and heartless consumerism we have borrowed from the affluent societies of the West. My objection to the consumerist phenomenon is two-fold. First, we cannot afford it. In a society where we lack drinking water, education, health, shelter and other basic necessities, it would be tragic if our productive resources were to be devoted largely to the satisfaction of the needs of a small minority”

 

The UPA Government under his leadership has kept these words in mind. UPA has introduced a series of Right based laws which legally guarantee – Right to Work (NREGA), Right to Information (RTI), Right to Tribals (Forest Rights Act), Right to Education and now Right to Food. 

These inclusive measures have ensured that the wealth created by the growth figures reach the last man in the queue- The Aam Aadmi. That is the vision of our Dr. Manmohan Singh, the man who has been India’s Prime Minister since 2004.

The Effects of Bad Communication in Business

by Julia Forneris, Demand Media

Regardless of your company's size and number of employees, good communication is essential to productivity. Conversely, poor communication has several adverse effects, which can lead to confusion in the workplace and lost business. Allen Webster's book, "Applied Statistics for Business and Economics," identifies how crucial communication in the workplace is: "Without communication and the team effort it permits, the successful completion of any important project can be jeopardized."

Decreased Productivity

High productivity is the goal of any business, as it is the component with which employees accomplish work-related tasks. Poor communication causes a breakdown in productivity. It may be that the employer does not relate goals and duties properly, in which case the employee can't perform the task. Even if you communicate well with your employees, if they have poor communication among each other, productivity is affected. Having to go back over the original task takes away valuable time that could be devoted to other jobs.

Low Morale

When employees receive information that is poorly communicated, or they lack the ability to communicate effectively themselves, they can suffer from low morale. Not understanding the task leads to confusion, which can affect self-esteem, both of which contribute to the job either not being done or not being completed properly. Communication is a two-way street, meaning the information flows from the employer to the employee and back again. Providing an environment in which employees feel comfortable asking for clarification can increase employee confidence and communication.

Mistakes

If an employer has poor communication skills, chances are that the employee can misunderstand his expected duties. Likewise, if employees lack good communication, they are less likely to ask for needed clarification or assistance. Poor communication leads to misunderstandings, which often leads to mistakes being made on the job.
It's especially important to ensure your written communication is clear as well. The written word can be just as easily misunderstood or misconstrued as spoken directives.

Effects of Negative Communication in the Workplace

by Arnold Anderson, Demand Media

Common elements of negative communication include rumors, misinformation, misinterpretation, incomplete information and employee slander. While many of the elements are purposely initiated -- for example, employee slander -- other elements occur without any intent of malice, such as unknowingly relaying incomplete information. Communication is essential for maintaining a productive workplace. By understanding the effects of negative communication in the workplace, you can develop policies that help to decrease the problem and encourage positive communication.

Conflict

A negative side effect to negative communication is workplace conflict. When one employee spreads false rumors about another staff member, the result can often be a verbal or physical altercation between the two parties. But conflict resulting from negative communication is often not that straightforward. For example, if an administrative assistant relays instructions from her manager that are incomplete, but she does not realize they are incomplete, then any anger resulting from the incomplete instructions would be directed at the assistant, but she would not understand why the conflict started.

Morale

Negative communication, whether intended or not, can have an effect on staff morale. Persistent intended negative communication can add stress to the workplace that makes it difficult to develop a productive work environment. Unintentional negative communication can be forgiven up to a point, but when it becomes habitual, it can lead to a drop in staff confidence in the company.

Structure

When there is a culture of negative communication in the workplace, it tends to have an effect on organizational structure. Communication between departments and other parts of the company breaks down because the negative communication has degraded organizational communication to the point where it is no longer functional. This will leave departments and work groups on their own to answer their own questions and develop their own methods of getting the job done. In the end, the structure of the organization starts to break down.

Recovery

An atmosphere of negative communication can be extremely difficult for a workplace to recover from. Intentional and unintentional negative communication erodes trust, and it pervades discourse to the point where information must be checked several times before it is acted upon. The longer negative communication is allowed to degrade the quality of communication and teamwork in the workplace, the longer it takes for the workplace to recover and become productive.

What Are the Two Ways of Communication in the Workplace?

Although there are several ways to communicate in the workplace, the most basic types are external communication and internal communication. Internal communication is used to regulate, manage and encourage productivity. Internal communication happens between company employees. External communication is used to advertise, sell, respond and build the business. External communication happens between company representatives and customers, vendors and others.

Internal Communication

Internal communication can motivate, reprimand or inform. Examples of internal communications are memos, email messages, instant messages and phone calls. For example, a manager might send out a mass email about an upcoming meeting. Company reports often disperse information about last year's profits and this year's goals. A phone call to get questions answered is another example of internal communication.

Face-to-Face

Companies use face-to-face internal communication in training, promotions, demotions and other areas of the workplace. While managers also can handle most of these tasks with written communication, an in-person, face-to-face communication is more personal and opens the door for verbal exchange.

External Communication

Many forms of external workplace communication are available, including faxes, Internet websites and advertising. Your company website promotes your business, allowing you to showcase your products and services. Faxes allow you to communicate over long distances, in writing, so there is a paper trail of the communication effort on your part. External communication not only serves customers but also can be used to place inventory orders with vendors, check out the competition and plan for the future. A phone call to a competitor gives you pricing information. An email to potential customers alerts them to upcoming deals and bargains.

Advertising

Advertising is a type of external communication. Placing an advertisement that highlights your product, service or sales lets the outside world know what you have going on. Even for customers who are not currently in need of your service, a well-designed ad can remind them to call you when needs do arise.

5 Steps to the Communication Process in the Workplace

by Erin Schreiner, Demand Media

Effective workplace communication is vital to company success. If management cannot communicate their wants with workers, and workers cannot communicate their needs back to management as well as amongst each other, the workforce will not be a cohesive team. To communicate effectively, understanding the steps in this information exchange process is vital.

Creation

The first step in communicating a message is creating the message. This requires that the individual sending the message decide what he wants to say, and selects a medium through which to communicate this information. If the medium he selects is a written one, he must compose a concise and clear message that others can understand. If the medium is oral, he must plan out a clear spoken message.

Transmission

After a message is created, it must be transmitted. This transmission may be as simple as meeting with the intended recipient of the message and orally sharing the message, or calling the individual to communicate orally over the phone. If the message is a print one, it could include distributing a paper memo or sending an email. Often, the number of individuals that the message must reach will influence the transmission, as individuals will be less likely to use face-to-face transmission if they must share the message with a large number of people.

Reception

After transmitting the message, the communication duties change hands and fall upon the receiver of the message. This individual must obtain the message either from the written format the sender selected or by listening carefully as the message is delivered orally.

Translation

Once receiving the message, the recipient must translate the message into terms that she can easily understand. To do this, she must listen to or read the message in question and paraphrase it within her head, turning the potentially complex contents of the message into more manageable and meaningful components.

Response

Communication is a two-way street and response is often necessary. Message recipients take the lead in concluding the communication process by crafting a response to the message. This response may be verbal and immediate, which would commonly be the case if the communication is face-to-face. It may also be a written response that either expands upon the message or simply indicates receipt of the message in question

What Are the Benefits of Effective Communication in the Workplace?

by Rose Johnson , Demand Media

Effective verbal and nonverbal communication skills are valuable in the workplace. Some companies spend a lot of money to train their employees on how to effectively communicate. Good communication skills go beyond conversations, but employees must know how to communicate well in written reports and emails. Understanding the benefits of effective communication helps companies place a focus on developing a workforce that is able to communicate within the firm and with customers, vendors and international business partners.

Helps with Diversity

Effective workplace communication is important in companies with workplace diversity. Good communication skills help to reduce the barriers erected because of language and cultural differences. Companies that provide communication training to domestic and international employees reap the benefits of effective workplace communication. Companies can avoid cultural confusion and miscommunication by training international employers early in their careers and on a regular basis. Effective communication causes productivity to increase, errors to decrease and operations to run smoother.

Global Business

With global business transactions continually increasing, the need for effective communication to meet global demands is also increasing. Managers and employees must know how to effectively communicate with the company's international counterparts. The difference in cultures requires managers to understand terms commonly used in America that another culture finds offensive. Companies that prepare workers to excel with verbal and nonverbal communications skills find it easier to enter into global marketplaces than companies that do not prepare its employees. Effective communication is important for businesses looking to expand beyond its domestic borders.

Team Building

Effective communication in the workplace helps employees and managers form highly efficient teams. Employees are able to trust each other and management. Effective communication reduces unnecessary competition within departments and helps employees work together harmoniously. The result of a team that works together is high productivity, integrity and responsibility. Employees know their roles on the team and know they are valued. Managers are able to correct employees' mistakes without creating a hostile work environment. A manager who openly communicates with his subordinates can foster positive relationships that benefit the company as a whole.

Employee Morale

An improvement in employee morale can result from effective communication. Although pay is a concern for many workers, it is not their only concern. Employees appreciate good communication coming from management. It produces a healthy work environment. When employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are able to efficiently perform their duties with a positive attitude. Failing to communicate effectively in a workplace leads to frustration and confusion among employees. However, managers can alleviate such problems by keeping the lines of communication open.

Information Technology & Its Role in the Modern Organization

Information technology (IT) has become a vital and integral part of every business plan. From multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe systems and databases to small businesses that own a single computer, IT plays a role. The reasons for the omnipresent use of computer technology in business can best be determined by looking at how it is being used across the business world.

Communication

For many companies, email is the principal means of communication between employees, suppliers and customers. Email was one of the early drivers of the Internet, providing a simple and inexpensive means to communicate. Over the years, a number of other communications tools have also evolved, allowing staff to communicate using live chat systems, online meeting tools and video-conferencing systems. Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) telephones and smart-phones offer even more high-tech ways for employees to communicate.

Inventory Management

When it comes to managing inventory, organizations need to maintain enough stock to meet demand without investing in more than they require. Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a pre-determined amount. These systems are best used when the inventory management system is connected to the point-of-sale (POS) system. The POS system ensures that each time an item is sold, one of that item is removed from the inventory count, creating a closed information loop between all departments.

Data Management

The days of large file rooms, rows of filing cabinets and the mailing of documents is fading fast. Today, most companies store digital versions of documents on servers and storage devices. These documents become instantly available to everyone in the company, regardless of their geographical location. Companies are able to store and maintain a tremendous amount of historical data economically, and employees benefit from immediate access to the documents they need.

Management Information Systems

Storing data is only a benefit if that data can be used effectively. Progressive companies use that data as part of their strategic planning process as well as the tactical execution of that strategy. Management Information Systems (MIS) enable companies to track sales data, expenses and productivity levels. The information can be used to track profitability over time, maximize return on investment and identify areas of improvement. Managers can track sales on a daily basis, allowing them to immediately react to lower-than-expected numbers by boosting employee productivity or reducing the cost of an item.

Customer Relationship Management

Companies are using IT to improve the way they design and manage customer relationships. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems capture every interaction a company has with a customer, so that a more enriching experience is possible. If a customer calls a call center with an issue, the customer support representative will be able to see what the customer has purchased, view shipping information, call up the training manual for that item and effectively respond to the issue. The entire interaction is stored in the CRM system, ready to be recalled if the customer calls again. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from improved productivity.

The Structure & Lines of Communication in an Organization by Dave Samuels, Demand Media

Different organizations use different structures, often based on the size of the organization or whether it has multiple divisions operating autonomously. Depending on the reason a company chooses a specific organizational structure, lines of communication must help facilitate not only accurate messaging, but also timely responses to prevent missed opportunities or late delivery of work.

Organizational Structures

While a variety of organizational structures exist, small businesses generally use a flat or hierarchical structure, based on their sizes. A flat structure is one that allows a few key staff members to work directly with the owner rather than through a vertical chain of command. As companies grow and add departments and employees, they create a hierarchy with directors, managers, staff workers and contractors. If a small business has multiple locations or different divisions, the company might assign some functions to each location, with a corporate headquarters providing centralized administrative support. Some businesses use a matrix structure, which creates project groups who share multiple department managers, requiring more multi-tasking and careful coordination of communications on the part of top management.

Lines of Communications

The more employees a business has, the more ways communications occur, not just in terms of what methods people use but also where and how they send messages. Lines of communication can include a chain-of-command that requires employees to communicate only with their direct superior rather than bringing comments or concerns directly to leaders higher on the org chart. One of the disadvantages of a strict chain of command is that employees might "cocoon" in their departments, creating less interaction and exchanges of ideas with co-workers in other areas. Other lines of communication might require specific messaging procedures such as submitting expense requests before making a purchase, getting work schedule swaps approved by a manager, or requiring sales contracts to go from sales representatives to a sales manager, then to the accounting department, then to the production department.

Communications Structure

Business use specific communications methods to streamline reporting, such as requiring managers to use the same employee evaluation form, having employees fill out the same expense reimbursement form or mandating that vacation requests be submitted to direct managers by a specific deadline. This type of communication structure allows those receiving memos, reports and proposals to quickly get to the relevant information and find the information they need because the information is presented in the same way every time.

Restraints on Communications

By instituting specific lines of communications, a business can prevent the chaos that results when workers continually go over the heads of or around their bosses. It also reduces problem caused by executives assigning work to staff members without their managers’ knowledge, or by customers calling and speaking to employees other than their sales rep. While a manager might have to follow a director’s request that a specific employee perform a specific task, by having the director go the manager, rather than the subordinate, the manager has a chance to shift some of that subordinate’s workload or to change other deadlines. Strict lines of communication help to ensure that key employees aren’t accidentally left out of important communications. Mandating that employees put communications in writing prevents miscommunications and he-said/she-said accusations.

Attend the IDP Global Education Fair and meet representatives from the leading universitites in Canada.

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Feed purification features

Feed purification features

It is imperative to remove impurities like sulphur and chlorine efficiently from the hydrocarbon feed in order to prevent poisoning of catalysts in the downstream (tubular) steam reformer.

Topsoe's range of feed purification catalysts provides an effective and economical removal of sulphur and chlorine compounds from hydrocarbon feedstocks ranging from natural gas to naphtha.

Purification steps

The purification section includes a number of steps:

Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation converts organic compounds into hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen chloride, as the organic compounds are not easily absorbed on downstream absorbents. The hydrogenation process is also applicable for feedstock containing olefins and di-olefins.

Topsoe’s extensive R&D activities within the hydrotreating area have resulted in the development of superior catalysts. Catalysts offered for this application are TK-250 (CoMo type) and TK-261 (NiMo type).

AbsorptionAfter hydrogenation the feed contains hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen chlorine, which are absorbed on a zinc oxide and a chlorine guard respectively. The concentration of these components at the outlet of the absorber is practically nil. The sulphur is removed to very low concentrations (ppb level).

The Topsoe chlorine guard - HTG-1 - offers high chlorine absorbtion capacity at a wide range of temperatures. The range of zinc oxide absorbents, the HTZ series, provides very efficient sulphur removal for all applications.

Final purification
Large variations in the sulphur content in the feed, low operating temperatures, high carbon dioxide or water content may require a final purification step. A solution is to install Topsoe's sulphur guard catalyst ST-101 where a high Cu surface area will remove any remaining hydrogen sulphide as well as organic sulphur in the bottom of the zinc oxide reactor.

 

Contact us

If you would like to know more please contact us by e-mail

E-mail Ammonia catalysts

E-mail Ammonia technology

Go to  Topsoe subsidiaries
and representative offices

Downloads

Feed purification catalysts and absorbents (74 KB)

Chlorine absorbent - HTG-1 (744 KB)

Sulphur absorbents - HTZ series (56 KB)

Sulphur guard for final purification - ST-101 (44 KB)

Hydrogenation catalyst for low pressure drop - TK-250 (280 KB)

Hydrogenation catalyst with superior activity - TK-261 (170 KB)

 

Natural Gas and the Environment

Natural Gas and the Environment

Source: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

Natural gas is an extremely important source of energy for reducing pollution and maintaining a clean and healthy environment. In addition to being a domestically abundant and secure source of energy, the use of natural gas also offers a number of environmental benefits over other sources of energy, particularly other fossil fuels.
.    Emissions from the Combustion of Natural Gas
        Greenhouse Gas Emissions
        Smog, Air Quality and Acid Rain
        Pollution from Industry and Electric Generation
        Pollution from the Transportation Sector
    The Natural Gas Industry and the Environment
Emissions from the Combustion of Natural Gas
Natural gas is the cleanest of all the fossil fuels, as evidenced in the Environmental Protection Agency’s data comparisons in the chart below, which is still current as of 2010. Composed primarily of methane, the main products of the combustion of natural gas are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the same compounds we exhale when we breathe. Coal and oil are composed of much more complex molecules, with a higher carbon ratio and higher nitrogen and sulfur contents. This means that when combusted, coal and oil release higher levels of harmful emissions, including a higher ratio of carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Coal and fuel oil also release ash particles into the environment, substances that do not burn but instead are carried into the atmosphere and contribute to pollution. The combustion of natural gas, on the other hand, releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, virtually no ash or particulate matter, and lower levels of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other reactive hydrocarbons.

Fossil Fuel Emission Levels - Pounds per Billion Btu of Energy Input
Pollutant	Natural Gas	Oil	Coal
Carbon Dioxide	117,000	164,000	208,000
Carbon Monoxide	40	33	208
Nitrogen Oxides	92	448	457
Sulfur Dioxide	1	1,122	2,591
Particulates	7	84	2,744
Mercury	0.000	0.007	0.016
Source: EIA - Natural Gas Issues and Trends 1998

Natural gas, as the cleanest of the fossil fuels, can be used in many ways to help reduce the emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning natural gas in the place of other fossil fuels emits fewer harmful pollutants, and an increased reliance on natural gas can potentially reduce the emission of many of these most harmful pollutants.
Pollutants emitted in the United States, particularly from the combustion of fossil fuels, have led to the development of many pressing environmental problems. Natural gas, emitting fewer harmful chemicals into the atmosphere than other fossil fuels, can help to mitigate some of these environmental issues. These issues include:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
    Smog, Air Quality and Acid Rain
    Industrial and Electric Generation Emissions
    Pollution from the Transportation Sector - Natural Gas Vehicles
Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-2007

Global warming, or the 'greenhouse effect' is an environmental issue that deals with the potential for global climate change due to increased levels of atmospheric 'greenhouse gases'. There are certain gases in our atmosphere that serve to regulate the amount of heat that is kept close to the
earth's surface. Scientists theorize that an increase in these greenhouse gases will translate into increased temperatures around the globe, which would result in many disastrous environmental effects. In fact, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts in its 'Fourth Assessment Report' released in 2007 that during the 21st century, global average temperatures are expected to rise by between 2.0 and 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit.  A Fifth Assessment Report is expected to be released by the IPCC between 2013 and 2015.

Power Plants Contribute to the Emission of Greenhouse Gases

Source: API

The principle greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, and some engineered chemicals such as cholorofluorocarbons. While most of these gases occur in the atmosphere naturally, levels have been increasing due to the widespread burning of fossil fuels by growing human populations. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has become a primary focus of environmental programs in countries around the world.
One of the principle greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide. Although carbon dioxide does not trap heat as effectively as other greenhouse gases (making it a less potent greenhouse gas), the sheer volume of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere is very high, particularly from the burning of fossil fuels. In fact, according to the Energy Information Administration in its December 2009 report 'Emissions of Greenhouse Gases’ in the United States, 81.3 percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States in 2008 came from energy-related carbon dioxide.

Source: EIA-Emissions of Greenhouse Gases Report 2009

Because carbon dioxide makes up such a high proportion of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, reducing carbon dioxide emissions can play a pivotal role in combating the greenhouse effect and global warming. The combustion of natural gas emits almost 30 percent less carbon dioxide than oil, and just under 45 percent less carbon dioxide than coal.
One issue that has arisen with respect to natural gas and the greenhouse effect is the fact that methane, the principle component of natural gas, is itself a potent greenhouse gas. Methane has an ability to trap heat almost 21 times more effectively than carbon dioxide. According to the Energy Information Administration, although methane emissions account for only 1.1 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, they account for 8.5 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions based on global warming potential. Sources of methane emissions in the U.S. include the waste management and operations industry, the agricultural industry, as well as leaks and emissions from the oil and gas industry itself. A major study performed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Gas Research Institute (GRI), now Gas Technology Institute, in 1997 sought to discover whether the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions from increased natural gas use would be offset by a possible increased level of methane emissions. The study concluded that the reduction in emissions from increased natural gas use strongly outweighs the detrimental effects of increased methane emissions.  More recently in 2011, researchers at the Carnegie Mellon University released “Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of Marcellus shale gas”, a report comparing greenhouse gas emissions from the Marcellus Shale region with emissions from coal used for electricity generation.  The authors found that wells in the Marcellus region emit 20 percent to 50 percent less greenhouse gases than coal used to produce electricity.
In 1993, the natural gas industry joined with EPA in launching the Natural Gas STAR Program to reduce methane emissions.  The STAR program has chronicled dramatic reductions to methane emissions, since that time:

• EPA STAR data shows a reduction in methane emissions each year for the last 16 years
• More than 904 Billion cubic feet (Bcf) of methane emissions were eliminated through the STAR program 1993-2009; and
• In 2009 alone, the program reduced methane emissions by 86 Bcf.

Thus the increased use of natural gas in the place of other, dirtier fossil fuels can serve to lessen the emission of greenhouse gases in the United States.
For more information on the Greenhouse Effect, visit the EPA's climate change site.
Smog, Air Quality and Acid Rain

Smog - Natural Gas Can Help

Source: EPA

Smog and poor air quality is a pressing environmental problem, particularly for large metropolitan cities. Smog, the primary constituent of which is ground level ozone, is formed by a chemical reaction of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and heat from sunlight. As well as creating that familiar smoggy haze commonly found surrounding large cities, particularly in the summer time, smog and ground level ozone can contribute to respiratory problems ranging from temporary discomfort to long-lasting, permanent lung damage. Pollutants contributing to smog come from a variety of sources, including vehicle emissions, smokestack emissions, paints, and solvents. Because the reaction to create smog requires heat, smog problems are the worst in the summertime.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency

The use of natural gas does not contribute significantly to smog formation, as it emits low levels of nitrogen oxides, and virtually no particulate matter. For this reason, it can be used to help combat smog formation in those areas where ground level air quality is poor. The main sources of nitrogen oxides are electric utilities, motor vehicles, and industrial plants. Increased natural gas use in the electric generation sector, a shift to cleaner natural gas vehicles, or increased industrial natural gas use, could all serve to combat smog production, especially in urban centers where it is needed the most. Particularly in the summertime, when natural gas demand is lowest and smog problems are the greatest, industrial plants and electric generators could use natural gas to fuel their operations instead of other, more polluting fossil fuels. This would effectively reduce the emissions of smog causing chemicals, and result in clearer, healthier air around urban centers.
For more information on smog, including the major contributors to smog formation and what is currently being done to combat smog levels, visit the EPA's smog information section.

Particulate emissions also cause the degradation of air quality in the United States. These
particulates can include soot, ash, metals, and other airborne particles. A study by the Union of Concerned Scientists in 1998, entitled 'Cars and Trucks and Air Pollution', showed that the risk of premature death for residents in areas with high airborne particulate matter was 26 percent greater than for those in areas with low particulate levels. Natural gas emits virtually no particulates into the atmosphere: in fact, emissions of particulates from natural gas combustion are 90 percent lower than from the combustion of oil, and 99 percent lower than burning coal. Thus increased natural gas use in place of other dirtier hydrocarbons can help to reduce particulate emissions in the U.S.  Current consequences stemming from global warming raised by the Union of Concerned Scientists can be found on their site.
Acid rain is another environmental problem that affects much of the Eastern United States, damaging crops, forests, wildlife populations, and causing respiratory and other illnesses in humans. Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water vapor and other chemicals in the presence of sunlight to form various acidic compounds in the air. The principle source of acid rain-causing pollutants, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, are coal fired power plants. Since natural gas emits virtually no sulfur dioxide, and up to 80 percent less nitrogen oxides than the combustion of coal, increased use of natural gas could provide for fewer acid rain causing emissions. Industrial and Electric Generation Emissions
Pollutant emissions from the industrial sector and electric utilities contribute greatly to environmental problems in the United States. The use of natural gas to power both industrial boilers and processes and the generation of electricity can significantly improve the emissions profiles for these two sectors.
Natural gas is becoming an increasingly important fuel in the generation of electricity. As well as providing an efficient, competitively priced fuel for the generation of electricity, the increased use of natural gas allows for the improvement in the emissions profile of the electric generation industry. According to the National Environmental Trust (NET), now Pew Charitable Trusts (PEW), in their 2002 publication entitled 'Cleaning up Air Pollution from America's Power Plants', power plants in the U.S. account for 67 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions, 40 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, 25 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions, and 34 percent of mercury emissions. Coal fired power plants are the greatest contributors to these types of emissions. In fact, according to World Watch Report 184, natural gas combined cycle power plants emit half as much carbon dioxide as modern super critical coal plants.

Emissions from Industrial Smokestacks

Source: EPA

Natural gas-fired electric generation and natural gas-powered industrial applications offer a variety of environmental benefits and environmentally friendly uses, including:

• Fewer Emissions - Combustion of natural gas, used in the generation of electricity, industrial boilers, and other applications, emits lower levels of NOx, CO2, and particulate emissions, and virtually no SO2 and mercury emissions. Natural gas can be used in place of, or in addition to, other fossil fuels, including coal, oil, or petroleum coke, which emit significantly higher levels of these pollutants.
• Reduced Sludge – Coal-fired power plants and industrial boilers that use scrubbers to reduce SO2 emissions levels generate thousands of tons of harmful sludge. Combustion of natural gas emits extremely low levels of SO2, eliminating the need for scrubbers, and reducing the amounts of sludge associated with power plants and industrial processes.
• Reburning - This process involves injecting natural gas into coal or oil fired boilers. The addition of natural gas to the fuel mix can result in NOx emission reductions of 50 to 70 percent, and SO2 emission reductions of 20 to 25 percent.
• Cogeneration - The production and use of both heat and electricity can increase the energy efficiency of electric generation systems and industrial boilers, which translates to the combustion of less fuel and the emission of fewer pollutants. Natural gas is the preferred choice for new cogeneration applications.
• Combined Cycle Generation – Combined-cycle generation units generate electricity and capture normally wasted heat energy, using it to generate more electricity. Like cogeneration applications, this increases energy efficiency, uses less fuel, and thus produces fewer emissions. Natural gas-fired combined-cycle generation units can be up to 60 percent energy efficient, whereas coal and oil generation units are typically only 30 to 35 percent efficient.
• Fuel Cells - Natural gas fuel cell technologies are in development for the generation of electricity. Fuel cells are sophisticated devices that use hydrogen to generate electricity, much like a battery. No emissions are involved in the generation of electricity from fuel cells, and natural gas, being a hydrogen rich source of fuel, can be used. Although still under development, widespread use of fuel cells could in the future significantly reduce the emissions associated with the generation of electricity.

Essentially, electric generation and industrial applications that require energy, particularly for heating, use the combustion of fossil fuels for that energy. Because of its clean burning nature, the use of natural gas wherever possible, either in conjunction with other fossil fuels, or instead of them, can help to reduce the emission of harmful pollutants.
According to the Congressional Research Service’s 2010 report: “Displacing Coal with Generation from Existing Natural-Gas Fired Power Plants,” if natural-gas combined cycle plants utilization were to be doubled from 42 percent capacity factor to 85 percent, then the amount of power generated would displace 19 percent of the CO2 emissions attributed to coal-fired electricity generation.
Pollution from the Transportation Sector - Natural Gas Vehicles

Source: EPA

The transportation sector (particularly cars, trucks, and buses) is one of the greatest contributors to air pollution in the United States. Emissions from vehicles contribute to smog, low visibility, and various greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Department of Energy (DOE), about half of all air pollution and more than 80 percent of air pollution in cities are produced by cars and trucks in the United States. Currently, automobile manufacturers are under pressure to produce more environmentally friendly vehicles.
Natural gas can be used in the transportation sector to cut down on these high levels of pollution from gasoline and diesel powered cars, trucks, and buses. According to the EPA, compared to traditional vehicles, vehicles operating on compressed natural gas have reductions in carbon monoxide emissions of 90 to 97 percent, and reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of 25 percent. Nitrogen oxide emissions can be reduced by 35 to 60 percent, and other non-methane hydrocarbon emissions could be reduced by as much as 50 to 75 percent. In addition, because of the relatively simple makeup of natural gas in comparison to traditional vehicle fuels, there are fewer toxic and carcinogenic emissions from natural gas vehicles, and virtually no particulate emissions. Thus the environmentally friendly attributes of natural gas may be used in the transportation sector to reduce air pollution.
Natural gas vehicles represent a growing segment of the transportation sector.  According to the Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition, the use of natural gas for vehicles doubled between 2003 and 2009.  Over 100,000 natural gas vehicles are currently on US roads.  A large portion of those vehicles are transit buses, which account for nearly 62 percent of all natural gas vehicles.

Source: Department of Energy-Office of Fossil Energy

Natural gas is the cleanest of the fossil fuels, and thus its many applications can serve to decrease harmful pollution levels from all sectors, particularly when used together with or replacing other fossil fuels. The natural gas industry itself is also committed to ensuring that the process of producing natural gas is as environmentally-friendly as possible. The Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition has more information regarding natural gas-powered vehicles.

The Transportation of Natural Gas

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system. In many instances, natural gas produced from a particular well will have to travel a great distance to reach its point of use. The transportation system for natural gas consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently transport natural gas from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand. Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage: should the natural gas being transported not be immediately required, it can be put into storage facilities for when it is needed.
There are three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering system, the interstate pipeline system, and the distribution system. The gathering system consists of low pressure, small diameter pipelines that transport raw natural gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. Should natural gas from a particular well have high sulfur and carbon dioxide contents (sour gas), a specialized sour gas gathering pipe must be installed. Sour gas is corrosive, thus its transportation from the wellhead to the sweetening plant must be done carefully. Review the treatment and processing of natural gas.
Pipelines can be characterized as interstate or intrastate. Interstate pipelines are similar to in the interstate highway system:  they carry natural gas across state boundaries, in some cases clear across the country. Intrastate pipelines, on the other hand, transport natural gas within a particular state. This section will cover only the fundamentals of interstate natural gas pipelines, however the technical and operational details discussed are essentially the same for intrastate pipelines.
Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines

Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines

Source: National Energy Technology Laboratory, DOE

The interstate natural gas pipeline network transports processed natural gas from processing plants in producing regions to those areas with high natural gas requirements, particularly large, populated urban areas. As can be seen, the pipeline network extends across the entire country.
Interstate pipelines are the 'highways' of natural gas transmission. Natural gas that is transported through interstate pipelines travels at high pressure in the pipeline, at pressures anywhere from 200 to 1500 pounds per square inch (psi). This reduces the volume of the natural gas being transported (by up to 600 times), as well as propelling natural gas through the pipeline.

This section will cover the components of the interstate pipeline system, the construction of pipelines, and pipeline inspection and safety. For more information on interstate pipelines in general, click here to visit the website of the Interstate Natural Gas Association of America.
Pipeline Components
Interstate pipelines consist of a number of components that ensure the efficiency and reliability of a system that delivers such an important energy source year-round, twenty four hours a day, and includes a number of different components.
Transmission Pipes

Pipes in Transit

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Transmission pipes can measure anywhere from 6 to 48 inches in diameter, depending on their function. Certain component pipe sections can even consist of small diameter pipe, as small as 0.5 inches in diameter. However, this small diameter pipe is usually used only in gathering and distribution systems. Mainline transmission pipes, the principle pipeline in a given system, are usually between 16 and 48 inches in diameter. Lateral pipelines, which deliver natural gas to or from the mainline, are typically between 6 and 16 inches in diameter. Most major interstate pipelines are between 24 and 36 inches in diameter. The actual pipeline itself, commonly called 'line pipe', consists of a strong carbon steel material, engineered to meet standards set by the American Petroleum Institute (API).  In contrast, some distribution pipe is made of highly advanced plastic, because of the need for flexibility, versatility and the ease of replacement.

Transmission pipelines are produced in steel mills, which are sometimes specialized to produce only pipeline. There are two different production techniques, one for small diameter pipes and one for large diameter pipes. For large diameter pipes, from 20 to 42 inches in diameter, the pipes are produced from sheets of metal which are folded into a tube shape, with the ends welded together to form a pipe section. Small diameter pipe, on the other hand, can be produced seamlessly. This involves heating a metal bar to very high temperatures, then punching a hole through the middle of the bar to produce a hollow tube. In either case, the pipe is tested before being shipped from the steel mill, to ensure that it can meet the pressure and strength standards for transporting natural gas.

Line pipe is also covered with a specialized coating to ensure that it does not corrode once placed in the ground. The purpose of the coating is to protect the pipe from moisture, which causes corrosion and rusting. There are a number of different coating techniques. In the past, pipelines were coated with specialized coal tar enamel. Today, pipes are often protected with what is known as a fusion bond epoxy, which gives the pipe a noticeable light blue color. In addition, cathodic protection is often used; which is a technique of running an electric current through the pipe to ward off corrosion and rusting.

Compressor Stations

As mentioned, natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate pipeline. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe. This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to 100 mile intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it is compressed by either a turbine, motor, or engine.

A Compressor Station

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Turbine compressors gain their energy by using up a small proportion of the natural gas that they compress. The turbine itself serves to operate a centrifugal compressor, which contains a type of fan that compresses and pumps the natural gas through the pipeline. Some compressor stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural gas from the pipe, however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby. Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor stations. These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered by natural gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the natural gas powers pistons on the outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas.
In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that capture any liquids or other unwanted particles from the natural gas in the pipeline. Although natural gas in pipelines is considered 'dry' gas, it is not uncommon for a certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of the gas stream while in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filter the gas prior to compression.
Metering Stations
In addition to compressing natural gas to reduce its volume and push it through the pipe, metering stations are placed periodically along interstate natural gas pipelines. These stations allow pipeline companies to monitor the natural gas in their pipes. Essentially, these metering stations measure the flow of gas along the pipeline, and allow pipeline companies to 'track' natural gas as it flows along the pipeline. These metering stations employ specialized meters to measure the natural gas as it flows through the pipeline, without impeding its movement.
Valves

A Ground Valve

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Interstate pipelines include a great number of valves along their entire length. These valves work like gateways; they are usually open and allow natural gas to flow freely, or they can be used to stop gas flow along a certain section of pipe. There are many reasons why a pipeline may need to restrict gas flow in certain areas. For example, if a section of pipe requires replacement or maintenance, valves on either end of that section of pipe can be closed to allow engineers and work crews safe access. These large valves can be placed every 5 to 20 miles along the pipeline, and are subject to regulation by safety codes.

Control Stations and SCADA Systems

Natural gas pipeline companies have customers on both ends of the pipeline - the producers and processors that input gas into the pipeline, and the consumers and local gas utilities that take gas out of the pipeline. In order to manage the natural gas that enters the pipeline, and to ensure that all customers receive timely delivery of their portion of this gas, sophisticated control systems are required to monitor the gas as it travels through all sections of what could be a very lengthy pipeline network. To accomplish this task of monitoring and controlling the natural gas that is traveling through the pipeline, centralized gas control stations collect, assimilate, and manage data received from monitoring and compressor stations all along the pipe.

Pipeline Control Station

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Most of the data that is received by a control station is provided by Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. These systems are essentially sophisticated communications systems that take measurements and collect data along the pipeline (usually in a metering or compressor stations and valves) and transmit it to the centralized control station. Flow rate through the pipeline, operational status, pressure, and temperature readings may all be used to assess the status of the pipeline at any one time. These systems also work in real time, meaning that there is little lag time between the measurements taken along the pipeline and their transmission to the control station.
The data is relayed to a centralized control station, allowing pipeline engineers to know exactly what is happening along the pipeline at all times. This enables quick reactions to equipment malfunctions, leaks, or any other unusual activity along the pipeline. Some SCADA systems also incorporate the ability to remotely operate certain equipment along the pipeline, including compressor stations, allowing engineers in a centralized control center to immediately and easily adjust flow rates in the pipeline.
Pipeline Construction
As natural gas use increases, so does the need to have transportation infrastructure in place to supply the increased demand. This means that pipeline companies are constantly assessing the flow of natural gas across the U.S., and building pipelines to allow transportation of natural gas to those areas that are underserved.

Surveying the Right-of-Way

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Constructing natural gas pipelines requires a great deal of planning and preparation. In addition to actually building the pipeline, several permitting and regulatory processes must be completed.  In many cases, prior to beginning the permitting and land access processes, natural gas pipeline companies prepare a feasibility analysis to ensure that an acceptable route for the pipeline exists that provides the least impact to the environment and public infrastructure already in place.

Assuming a pipeline company obtains all the required permits and satisfies all of the regulatory requirements, construction of the pipe may begin. Extensive surveying of the intended route is completed, both aerial and land based, to ensure that no surprises pop up during actual assembly of the pipeline.
Installing a pipeline is much like an assembly line process, with sections of the pipeline being completed in stages. First, the path of the pipeline is cleared of all removable impediments, including trees, boulders, brush, and anything else that may prohibit the construction. Once the pipeline's path has been cleared sufficiently to allow construction equipment to gain access, sections of pipes are laid out along the intended path, a process called 'stringing' the pipe. These pipe sections are commonly from 40 to 80 feet long, and are specific to their destination. That is, certain areas have different requirements for coating material and pipe thickness.

'Stringing' the Pipe

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Once the pipe is in place, trenches are dug alongside the laid out pipe. These trenches are typically five to six feet deep, as the regulations require the pipe to be at least 30 inches below the surface. In certain areas, however, including road crossings and bodies of water, the pipe is buried even deeper. Once the trenches are dug, the pipe is assembled and contoured. This includes welding the sections of pipe together into one continuous pipeline, and bending it slightly, if needed, to fit the contour of the pipeline’s path. Coating is applied to the ends of the pipes.  The coating applied at a coating mill typically leaves the ends of the pipe clean, so as not to interfere with welding.  Finally, the entire coating of the pipe is inspected to ensure that it is free from defects.
Once the pipe is welded, bent, coated, and inspected it can be lowered into the previously-dug trenches. This is done with specialized construction equipment acting to lift the pipe in a level manner and lower it into the trench. Once lowered into the ground, the trench is filled in carefully, to ensure that the pipe and its coating retain their integrity. The last step in pipeline construction is the hydrostatic test. This consists of running water, at pressures higher than will be needed for natural gas transportation, through the entire length of the pipe. This serves as a test to ensure that the pipeline is strong enough, and absent of any leaks of fissures, before natural gas is pumped through the pipeline.

Lowering Pipe

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

Laying pipe across streams or rivers can be accomplished in one of two ways. Open cut crossing involves the digging of trenches on the floor of the river to house the pipe. When this is done, the pipe itself is usually fitted with a concrete casing, which both ensures that the pipe stays on the bottom of the river and adds an extra protective coating to prevent any natural gas leaks into the water.  Alternatively, a form of directional drilling may be employed, in which a 'tunnel' is drilled under the river through which the pipe may be passed. The same techniques are used for road crossings - either an open trench is excavated across the road and replaced once the pipe is installed, or a tunnel may be drilled underneath the road.

Once the pipeline has been installed and covered, extensive efforts are taken to restore the pipeline's pathway to its original state, or to mitigate any environmental or other impacts that may have occurred during the construction process. These steps often include replacing topsoil, fences, irrigation canals, and anything else that may have been removed or upset during the construction process.  For more information on natural gas pipeline construction, visit the website of the Interstate Natural Gas Association of America. 
Pipeline Inspection and Safety

Pig - Pipeline Inspection Tool

Source: Duke Energy Gas Transmission Canada

In order to ensure the efficient and safe operation of the extensive network of natural gas pipelines, pipeline companies routinely inspect their pipelines for corrosion and defects. This is done through the use of sophisticated pieces of equipment known as ‘smart pigs.’ Smart pigs are intelligent robotic devices that are propelled down pipelines to evaluate the interior of the pipe. Smart pigs can test pipe thickness, and roundness, check for signs of corrosion, detect minute leaks, and any other defect along the interior of the pipeline that may either impede the flow of gas, or pose a potential safety risk to the operation of the pipeline. Sending a smart pig down a pipeline is fittingly known as 'pigging' the pipeline.

In addition to inspection with smart pigs, there are a number of safety precautions and procedures in place to minimize the risk of accidents. In fact, the transportation of natural gas is one of the safest ways of transporting energy, mostly due to the fact that the infrastructure is fixed, and buried underground. According to the Department of Transportation (DOT), pipelines are the safest method of transporting petroleum and natural gas. While there are in excess of 100 deaths per year associated with electric transmission lines, according to the DOT's Office of Pipeline Safety in 2009, there were 0 deaths associated with transmission pipelines, and 10 deaths associated with distribution systems. To learn more about pipeline safety, visit the DOT's Office of Pipeline Safety.

A few of the safety precautions associated with natural gas pipelines include:

• Aerial Patrols - Planes are used to ensure no construction activities are taking place too close to the route of the pipeline, particularly in residential areas. Unauthorized construction and digging is the primary threat to pipeline safety, according to INGAA
• Leak Detection - Natural gas detecting equipment is periodically used by pipeline personnel on the surface to check for leaks. This is especially important in areas where the natural gas is not odorized.
• Pipeline Markers - Signs on the surface above natural gas pipelines indicate the presence of underground pipelines to the public, to reduce the chance of any interference with the pipeline.
• Gas Sampling - Routine sampling of the natural gas in pipelines ensures its quality, and may also indicate corrosion of the interior of the pipeline, or the influx of contaminants.
• Preventative Maintenance - This involves the testing of valves and the removal of surface impediments to pipeline inspection.
• Emergency Response - Pipeline companies have extensive emergency response teams that train for the possibility of a wide range of potential accidents and emergencies.
• The One Call Program - All 50 states have instituted what is known as a 'one call' program, which provides excavators, construction crews, and anyone interested in digging into the ground around a pipeline with a single phone number that may be called when any excavation activity is planned. This call alerts the pipeline company, which may flag the area, or even send representatives to monitor the digging.  The national 3-digit number for one call is “811.”

While large interstate natural gas pipelines transport natural gas from the processing regions to the consuming regions and may serve large wholesale users such as industrial or power generation customers directly, it is the distribution system that actually delivers natural gas to most retail customers, including residential natural gas users.