OZONE DEPLETION & GLOBAL WARMING

OZONE DEPLETION & GLOBAL WARMING 

Global Warming: meaning-The increase in the global mean temperature is called “global warming”. The global warming is due to increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Air Pollution traps more heat in the atmosphere, rendering the earth more-warmer. This effect is called as “global warming”.

What is the ozone layer

Earth’s atmosphere has many layers, and each layer has its unique features. The ozone layer is a crucial part of the atmosphere. It is a part of the stratosphere (a layer of the atmosphere). The ozone layer works as a shield for the earth and reflects most of the UV rays produced by the sun. It protects the earth like an umbrella and interrupts harmful UV or ultraviolet rays to reach the earth’s surface. Therefore, the ozone layer also helps maintain the earth’s natural temperature. 

Global warming and ozone layer depletion

Global warming and ozone layer depletion are environmental phenomena that are closely intertwined. The term ozone hole means depletion in the ozone layer. This layer works as a protective layer of earth and helps absorb an excessive amount of UV rays, CFCs, Halon gas etc., that are harmful to living creatures of the earth. Depletion in the ozone layer can create various severe health problems.

Increased Greenhouse gases, heat, pollution etc., are causing global warming and depletion of the ozone layer. Also, UV rays entering the earth’s atmosphere because of ozone layer depletion increases the temperature of the earth. So, both of these alarming environmental phenomena result from human activities like pollution, carbon release, deforestation, increased Greenhouse gases etc. 

Causes of Global Warming

Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.The Deforestation is one of the main reasons of global warming. Cutting and burning of about 34 million acres of trees every year results in urbanisation and the land for factories timber lead to deforestation. In addition to the deforestation, the below mentioned GHG’s contributes to the global warming.

Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.

In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.

Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation

An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

Global warming is the phenomenon of gradual increase in the average temperature of earth . It is caused by the release of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs etc. into the atmosphere.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature

Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by 1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.

Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change

Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.

Spread of Diseases

Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and spread diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.

Constitutional Provisions - Environmental Protection in India

Constitutional Provisions for Environmental Protection in India

The Indian Constitution establishes a distinctive federal system for the country. It is a large piece of law that lays forth the Directive Principles of State Policy that the legislature should keep in mind while enacting legislation in addition to giving shape to the dreams of freedom fighters by emphasizing fundamental rights. The division of topics on which the Union and State governments may pass laws is outlined in detail in Part XI of the Constitution, which deals with legislative relations. This section of the article discusses the various sections of the constitution’s environmental provisions.

Preamble to the Indian Constitution

The Indian Constitution’s Preamble, which begins with “We the People,” lays forth the Constitution’s purposes and objectives. A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic is proclaimed for India. It has been declared to be a key to the constitution’s creators’ minds.i Even though the 42nd Amendment later added the words “Secular and Socialist” to the Constitution, the document already had a secular and socialist foundation. The Constitution has several articles that address the socialist and secular structures of the country, with Part IV placing emphasis on the socialist mode of government and Part III defining the secular structure of the nation.

When Part IV of the Indian Constitution is read in connection with the word socialist, it is clear that the Constitution adopted a welfare state with socialism as its primary model. Social welfare is impossible if individuals are made to live in filthy conditions that put their health and life in danger. The phrase “Democratic Republic” emphasizes the idea that the people have a right to participate in the political process and that the government should work for their welfare. This suggests that the government will work to ensure that there is a clean environment that is fit for human habitation in addition to other things.

Right to life and Environment Protection 

The constitutional right to life is protected under Article 21. According to this, no one’s right to life or personal liberty may be taken away from them until legal procedures are followed. According to one interpretation, the phrase “except in accordance with procedures established by law” means that this rule is subject to exception and is governed by legislation, which differs from instance to case.

In addition to the basic essentials of life, such as food, shelter, clean water, and clothing, the right to life also encompasses the right to live in dignity. The right to life includes the ability to live in a decent and safe environment free from danger to one’s life. The surroundings must be free of illnesses.

According to the ruling in Charan Lal Sahu v. Union of India, the state has a responsibility to take reasonable and decisive action to uphold and defend constitutional rights protected by Articles 21, 48-A, and 51-A(g).

Right To Equality and Environmental Protection

Article 14 of the Constitution guarantees everyone equal protection under the law as well as equality before the law. The state cannot violate article 14 since this fundamental right implicitly imposes an obligation on it to act fairly while pursuing environmental protection measures. The judiciary has played a stringent role in prohibiting the arbitrary sanction in cases where state authorities have used their arbitrary powers. The fundamental right to equality of all persons is violated when discretionary powers are used without considering the needs of the general public.

Freedom of Speech and Expression and Environment 

Article 19(1)(a) of Part III of the Constitution specifically mentions the right to free speech and expression as a basic right. As in the case of Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra, Dehradun v. State of Uttar Pradesh, where people complained about the violation of their right to a clean and safe environment and a right to livelihood, there have been numerous instances where people have approached the court through speech and by expressing themselves in writing.In India, the media has been playing a crucial role in moulding the perception of people in issues relating to the environment. Thus, Article 19(1)(a) is interpreted to include the freedom of the press as well. 

Freedom of Trade and Commerce and Environmental Protection 

According to Article 19 (1)(g) of the Constitution, every Indian citizen has a basic right to practice any profession, business, trade, or commerce at any location in Indian territory. However, as this is not a universal right, there are certain fair limitations. This basic right to avoid environmental hazards is subject to a reasonable restriction as set forth in Article 19(6) of the Constitution. The purpose is to avoid the ecological imbalance and degradation of the atmosphere in the name of carrying on a trade, business, occupation or carrying on any profession. Thus, in the name of business or profession, one cannot cause harm to the environment.

Fundamental Duties of Indian Constitution:

Part IV A of the Constitution of India inserted by Constitution (Forty-second Amendment) Act, 1976 imposes duties upon very citizen of India. Article 51A casts eleven duties upon the citizens of India.iv Article 51A(g) casts the following duty upon the citizens of India To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures.

Directive Principles of State Policy

Guidelines for State Policy are outlined in Part IV of the Indian Constitution. They specify the nation’s socioeconomic objectives. Although Directive Principles are not subject to the law, Article 37 declares them to be essential to the nation’s government. There was no explicit clause in Part IV that dealt only with the environment prior to the 42nd Amendment.

The provisions entrenched in Articles 38, 47, and 50 read with Article 37, however, can be used to infer the Indian Constitution’s intention to safeguard the environment.

Legislative powers and matters of environmental protection

The Indian Constitution recognizes three different lists: concurrent, state, and union. At the state and union levels, the government’s authority is divided. State government handles matters of state list, while central government handles matters of union list. As a result, only the Parliament has the authority to pass legislation regarding list I, which is the list of topics of union. The state list, or list II, deals with issues including public health, drainage, the availability of clean water, and sanitation. It deals with issues pertaining to military, nuclear power, oil field regulation, air traffic, etc.

If a state law is passed after a federal law, in order for it to take effect, it must first receive presidential assent in accordance with Article 254. Parliament has the authority to legislate state matters as well in times of national emergency. To enact laws that can address environmental issues, these legislative authorities must be divided. The state has undertaken several projects to improve the environment, yet they could represent a major threat to the ecology. Development and the conservation of the environment are in conflict in these situations, and the Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) is used to address these issues. Additionally, the planning commission has acknowledged this.

 International Environmental Agreements

India has been a signatory to a myriad of international agreements pertaining to environmental preservation. Because it was agreed upon in the Stockholm Declaration in 1972 that there is only one environment on Earth. India is required to translate these provisions and implement them in the nation as a signatory to such international agreements. This is expressly mentioned in Article 51(c) of the Indian Constitution, which states that the state will promote adherence to treaty obligations and international law.

Article 253 of the Constitution, which gives the Parliament of our nation the power to pass laws that can be applied to the entire or any territory of the country for implementing any agreement or convention signed with the other country or countries, is another crucial provision that deals with protecting the environment.Parliament may also pass laws to carry out decisions made at international conferences. Any provision made in connection with environmental protection in line with Article 253 read with Articles 13 and 14 cannot be contested in court on the grounds that the legislator lacked the authority to make the provision.

With the use of this power, it is pertinent to know that Parliament has enacted Air ( Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981, and Environment Protection Act, 1986. It has been clearly stated in the Preamble of these acts that the purpose of their enactment was to implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held at Stockholm in the year 1972.

In Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India AIR 1996 SC 2715 the supreme court ruled that, as long as they are not in conflict with them, municipal rules must take into account international customary law. It is a recognized legal theory. The domestic courts of law so regarded adherence to international law as mandatory.

Role of the Supreme Court in environmental protection 

In lieu of the wide range of cases dealt by supreme court with regard to environmental protection, a plethora of judgements have been passed which have laid down various principles to be taken care of before indulging in any activity which might pose a threat to the environment. Also, different aspects of the environment have been highlighted by giving them immense importance like natural resources. Air and water have been given the status of the gift of nature and inalienable part of life. 

Polluter Pays Principle 

That “if you make a mess, it becomes your duty to clean it up” is the fundamental idea behind this tenet. The polluter pays principle places more focus on the remedial strategy to restore the ecological harm produced by any individual or group of individuals than it does on the ‘fault’. In the OECD Guiding Principles for International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies, this idea was originally mentioned in 1972.Additionally, same idea was utilized in the Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India case. In M.C Mehta v. Union of India and Ors( Calcutta Tanneries Case), the polluter pays principle was applied where industries were directed to be relocated and these industries were ordered to pay 25% of the cost of the land.

Precautionary Principle

The precautionary principle is outlined in Rio Declaration Principle 15. In light of this. Applying the precautionary principle is crucial for environmental protection. According to this principle, the absence of complete scientific certainty cannot be used as an excuse for failing to issue cost-effective procedures where there is a likelihood of significant harm or irreparable environmental damage.Another judicial decision based on the precautionary principle was made in M.C. Mehta v. Union, often known as the Taj Mahal Case. A public interest lawsuit was filed in this instance, stating that environmental contamination is to blame for the Taj Mahal’s decline. Court referred the case to the expert committee to seek technical advice on the matter. On the basis of the report of the committee. This monument is a monument of international repute. The industries located in the Taj Trapezium Zone(TTZ) were using coke/coal as the industrial fuel, thus emitting effluents.

The doctrine of Public trust 

This doctrine rests on the principle that certain resources which are required for fulfilling the basic amenities of life like air, water etc hold great importance to the people at large that it would be completely unjustified to make these resources available to private ownership. Since these resources are the gift of nature that is why they should be made freely available to every individual of the society irrespective of the status in life. The doctrine obliges the government to protect resources for public use rather than being exploited by a private person for making economic gains. 

Thus, commercial use of natural resources is completely prohibited under this doctrine. For the effective and optimum utilization of resources, this doctrine mandates an affirmative action of the state authorities. Also, citizens are empowered to question the authorities if resource management is ineffective. 

Case Laws:

M.C. Mehta v. Union of India AIR 1997 SC 734 where a petition was filed for preventing the degradation of the Taj Mahal due to pollution caused by coal using industries via Trapezium, the Apex Court issued directions to 292 industries located in Agra to change over within a time schedule to Natural Gas as industrial fuel or stop functioning with coal/coke and to apply for relocation or otherwise stop functioning w.e.f. 30-04-1997 on account of violation of Articles 21, 48A, 51A and 47 of the

Constitution.

M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath AIR 2000 SC 1997 it was contended by the petitioner that if a person disturbs the ecological balance and tinkers with the natural conditions of rivers, forests, air and water, which are the gifts of nature, he will be violating the fundamental right guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution. Supreme Court accepted the contention of the petitioner and held that any disturbance of basic environment elements namely air, water, soil which are necessary for “life” would be hazardous to “life” within the meaning of Article 21 of the constitution. The court after holding it to be a violation of article 21 proceeded to observe that in these cases polluter pays principle and principle of Public Trust Doctrine applies

Subash Kumar v. State of Bihar AIR 1991 SC 420 it was held that right to live is a fundamental right under Article 21 of the constitution and it includes the right to enjoyment of pollution free water and air for full enjoyment of life. If anything endangers or impairs that quality of life in derogation of laws, a citizen has a right to have recourse to Article 32 of the constitution for removing the pollution of water or air which may be detrimental to the quality of life.

Ratlam Municipality v. Vardhi Chand AIR 1980 SC 1622 supreme court ordered the closure of limestone quarries in Dehra Dun-Mussooorie Area. It realised that the closure of limestone quarries would cause financial hardships but the court observed that it is the price that has to be paid for protecting and safeguarding the right of the people to live in a healthy environment with minimal disturbance of ecological balance, and without avoidable hazard to them and to their cattle, homes and agricultural land and undue affection of air, water and environment.

Conclusion:

The term “environment” was not specifically mentioned in the Constitution in the past, and there were no provisions in place to address environmental hazards and control human behavior that was significantly contributing to the degradation of the environment while purporting to be exercising fundamental rights. The supreme law of the land is the constitution. Therefore, including clauses that particularly address environmental issues might prove advantageous for the environment.

Constitutional Provisions for Environmental Protection in India, Directive Principles of State Policy of enviornmental law, Freedom of Speech and Expression and Environment, Freedom of Trade and Commerce and Environmental Protection, Fundamental Duties of Indian Constitution:, International Environmental Agreements in environmental law, Legislative powers and matters of environmental protection, Polluter Pays Principle, Preamble to the Indian Constitution in environmental law, Precautionary Principle, Right To Equality and Environmental Protection, Right to life and Environment Protection, Role of the Supreme Court in environmental protection, The doctrine of Public trust

Climate Change - as a Fundamental and Human Right under the Indian Constitution

Climate Change as a Fundamental and Human Right under the Indian Constitution

The issue of climate change has risen to become one of the most pressing challenges facing humanity in the 21st century. Its far-reaching impacts are felt across the globe, affecting ecosystems, economies, and human well-being. In the context of India, where the effects of climate change are becoming increasingly visible through erratic weather patterns, rising sea levels, and changing agricultural yields, the question arises: Is the right to a healthy environment and protection against climate change enshrined as a fundamental and human right under the Indian Constitution?

Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty to every citizen. Over the years, the Supreme Court of India has interpreted this right expansively to include a broad spectrum of rights aimed at ensuring a life of dignity and quality for its citizens. In several landmark judgments, the Court has recognized that the right to a clean and healthy environment is integral to the right to life under Article 21.

The Supreme Court, in the case of M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (1987), famously held that “the right to life includes the right to a wholesome environment.” This judgment emphasized the state’s duty to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. It laid down the principle that environmental protection is not just a governmental responsibility but a fundamental right of every citizen. Therefore, any act or omission that causes environmental degradation and violates this right can be challenged in the courts.

Article 14: Right to Equality

Article 14 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality before the law and equal protection of the laws to all persons. While this Article primarily deals with the right to equality in the context of civil and political rights, its principles can be invoked to argue for equal protection from the adverse effects of climate change.

Climate change impacts do not discriminate; they affect rich and poor, urban and rural populations alike. However, marginalized and vulnerable communities often bear a disproportionate burden of the adverse impacts due to their limited resources and capacity to adapt. Article 14 can be invoked to argue that all citizens have an equal right to protection from the adverse effects of climate change, and the state has a duty to ensure equitable distribution of resources and opportunities for adaptation and mitigation.

Climate Change as a Distinct Fundamental and Human Right

While Article 21 and 14 provide the constitutional basis for recognizing the right to a healthy environment and protection against climate change, there is a growing recognition that these rights should be explicitly recognized as distinct fundamental and human rights under the Indian Constitution. Given the existential threat posed by climate change and its intergenerational impacts, there is a strong case to be made for elevating the right to a clean and healthy environment to the status of a distinct fundamental right.

Several countries around the world have recognized the right to a healthy environment as a fundamental right in their constitutions or through legislation. In India, the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, which provides for the establishment of a specialized environmental tribunal, implicitly acknowledges the importance of environmental rights. However, there is a need for explicit constitutional recognition to provide stronger legal protection and ensure effective enforcement of these rights.

Conclusion

The Indian Constitution, through Articles 21 and 14, provides a robust framework for recognizing the right to a healthy environment and protection against climate change. There is a pressing need to explicitly recognize these rights as distinct fundamental human rights. Given the growing challenges posed by climate change and its far-reaching impacts on the lives and livelihoods of millions of people, it is imperative for the Indian legal system to evolve and adapt to address these challenges effectively. Recognizing the right to a clean and healthy environment as a distinct fundamental and human right will not only strengthen the legal framework for environmental protection but also reaffirm India’s commitment to sustainable development and the well-being of its citizens.

The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of 1986 is a significant legislative measure in India aimed at safeguarding the environment from pollution and deterioration.

The Environmental Protection Act, 1986: Ensuring Environmental Protection in India

Introduction

The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) of 1986 is a significant legislative measure in India aimed at safeguarding the environment from pollution and deterioration. Prior to the enactment of the EPA, environmental protection efforts in India were somewhat fragmented. In 1980, the Department of Environment was established, which was later converted into the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 was an earlier attempt to control pollution, but the need for a more comprehensive legislative framework was felt, leading to the formulation of the EPA.

The primary objective of the EPA is to take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of the environment, and to prevent hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants, and property. The Act defines “environment pollution” as the presence of any environmental pollutant in the environment, and “environment pollutant” as any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to the environment.

Objectives of the Environmental Protection Act

The Environmental Protection Act, 1986, was passed with several key objectives in mind:

Implementation of International Decisions: The Act was enacted to implement the decisions made at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972.

Creation of Authority: It aimed to create authorities for government protection and coordinate the activities of various regulatory agencies under existing laws.

General Laws for Environmental Protection: The Act was designed to enact general laws for environmental protection, especially in areas facing severe environmental hazards.

Deterrent Punishment: It sought to provide deterrent punishment to those endangering the human environment, safety, and health.

Sustainable Development: The Act promotes sustainable development, which includes achieving its objectives and protecting life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.

Powers of the Central Government

The EPA grants significant powers to the Central Government to take measures for the protection and improvement of the environment. These measures include:

Laying Down Standards: The Central Government can lay down standards for the quality of the environment.

Coordination of Actions: It coordinates actions with state officers and other authorities under any law.

National Programmes: It oversees the execution and proper planning of national programmes for the prevention, control, and abatement of environmental pollution.

Restrictions on Industries: It can impose restrictions on the location of industries and the carrying out of processes and operations in different areas.

Accident Prevention: It lays down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents that may cause environmental pollution and provides for remedial measures.

Handling Hazardous Substances: It establishes procedures and safeguards for handling hazardous substances.

Examination and Inspection: It examines manufacturing processes, materials, and substances likely to cause environmental pollution and has the power to inspect premises, equipment, and materials.

Information Dissemination: It collects and disseminates information related to environmental pollution and prepares manuals, codes, and guides for controlling pollution.

Establishment of Laboratories: It establishes laboratories for the effective implementation of the Act.

Authorization of Authorities: Under Section 3 of the Act, the Central Government can authorize or constitute other authorities for implementing its powers and duties.

Case Law: Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India

In the landmark case of Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India, the Supreme Court directed the Central Government to constitute an authority under Section 3(3) of the EPA to implement powers for protecting the environment. The Court emphasized the importance of implementing the “precautionary principle” and the “polluter pays principle” to combat environmental degradation.

Power to Give Directions

The EPA empowers the Central Government to issue written directions to any person or officer, who must comply with these directions. These powers include:

Closure or Regulation of Industries: The Central Government can direct the closure, prohibition, or regulation of any industry or its operational processes.

Stoppage or Regulation of Services: It can order the stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or other services to any industry or process that is polluting the environment.

Key Provisions of the Environmental Protection Act

The Environmental Protection Act, 1986, is a comprehensive legislation that encompasses various provisions aimed at environmental protection. Some of the key provisions include:

Definition of Key Terms: The Act defines crucial terms such as “environment”, “environmental pollutant”, “environmental pollution”, “hazardous substance”, and “occupier”, providing clarity on their scope and implications.

General Powers of the Central Government: It outlines the general powers of the Central Government, enabling it to take necessary measures for environmental protection and improvement.

Prevention and Control of Pollution: The Act specifies the measures for preventing and controlling pollution, including laying down standards for emissions and effluents, and establishing procedures for the handling of hazardous substances.

Penalties and Legal Proceedings: The Act provides for penalties and legal proceedings against those who violate its provisions, ensuring accountability and enforcement.

Environmental Laboratories: It includes provisions for the establishment and recognition of environmental laboratories to carry out analysis and testing of samples.

Environmental Impact Assessment: The Act emphasizes the need for conducting environmental impact assessments for certain projects and activities to evaluate their potential impact on the environment.

Sustainable Development and the Environment Protection Act

One of the significant aspects of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, is its emphasis on sustainable development. The concept of sustainable development involves meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The Act aligns with this principle by promoting environmental conservation and responsible use of natural resources.

The Act recognizes that sustainable development is essential for achieving its objectives and protecting the fundamental right to life under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. This right includes the right to a healthy environment, clean air, and safe drinking water. By incorporating sustainable development principles, the Act aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection.

Role of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a critical tool for achieving the objectives of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986. EIA involves evaluating the potential environmental impact of proposed projects and activities before they are approved or implemented. It helps identify and mitigate adverse effects on the environment, ensuring that development projects are environmentally sustainable.

The EIA process includes several stages, such as screening, scoping, public consultation, impact analysis, and decision-making. By conducting EIAs, the government can make informed decisions, minimize environmental damage, and promote sustainable development.

Implementation Challenges and Recommendations

Despite the comprehensive framework provided by the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, several challenges hinder its effective implementation. Some of these challenges include:

Lack of Awareness: There is often a lack of awareness among the general public and industries about the provisions of the Act and their responsibilities towards environmental protection.

Inadequate Enforcement: The enforcement of environmental laws and regulations is sometimes weak due to limited resources, lack of trained personnel, and bureaucratic hurdles.

Industrial Resistance: Industries may resist compliance with environmental standards and regulations due to perceived high costs and potential impacts on profitability.

Judicial Delays: Legal proceedings related to environmental violations can be time-consuming, leading to delays in achieving justice and remediation.

To address these challenges and improve the implementation of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, the following recommendations are proposed:

Awareness Campaigns: Conducting awareness campaigns and educational programs to inform the public, industries, and other stakeholders about the importance of environmental protection and compliance with the Act.

Strengthening Enforcement: Enhancing the capacity and resources of enforcement agencies to ensure strict compliance with environmental regulations and timely action against violators.

Industry Collaboration: Encouraging industries to adopt environmentally sustainable practices and technologies through incentives, support, and collaboration.

Judicial Reforms: Implementing judicial reforms to expedite the resolution of environmental cases and ensure timely justice and remediation.

Public Participation: Promoting public participation and involvement in environmental decision-making processes, such as public consultations during the EIA process.

Conclusion

The Environmental Protection Act, 1986, is a landmark legislation in India aimed at protecting and improving the environment. It provides a comprehensive framework for preventing and controlling environmental pollution, promoting sustainable development, and ensuring accountability for environmental violations. The Act empowers the Central Government to take necessary measures for environmental protection and grants significant powers for enforcing its provisions.

The implementation of the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, faces several challenges, including lack of awareness, inadequate enforcement, industrial resistance, and judicial delays. However, through awareness campaigns, strengthened enforcement, industry collaboration, judicial reforms, and public participation, these challenges can be addressed, leading to more effective environmental protection.

Overall, the Environmental Protection Act, 1986, plays a crucial role in safeguarding the environment and promoting sustainable development in India. It is essential for all stakeholders, including the government, industries, and the public, to work together towards achieving the Act’s objectives and ensuring a healthy and sustainable environment for present and future generations.

The principles of sustainable development are integrated into Indian constitutional and environmental jurisprudence

Principles of Sustainable Development in Indian Environmental Law

The principles of sustainable development are integrated into Indian constitutional and environmental jurisprudence, reflecting the balance between economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. These principles are derived from constitutional mandates, statutory frameworks, and judicial pronouncements.

Constitutional Provisions

Article 48A (Directive Principles of State Policy):

It mandates the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.

Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duties):

It imposes a duty on citizens to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.

Right to Life (Article 21):

The Supreme Court of India has interpreted the right to life under Article 21 to include the right to a clean and healthy environment. This ensures that environmental protection is linked with fundamental rights.

Principles of Sustainable Development in Indian Environmental Law

These principles have been explicitly recognized and elaborated by the judiciary in various cases:

Polluter Pays Principle:

Polluters are liable for the cost of environmental damage and for restoring the environment.

Recognized in cases like Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996).

Precautionary Principle:

Activities with potential environmental risks must be prevented or mitigated even if there is scientific uncertainty.

Highlighted in Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996).

Inter-Generational Equity:

The present generation has a duty to preserve natural resources for future generations.

Discussed in Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of U.P. (1985).

Public Trust Doctrine:

Natural resources like air, water, and forests are held in trust by the State for public use and cannot be exploited for private purposes.

Emphasized in M.C. Mehta v. Kamal Nath (1997).

Sustainable Development:

Economic growth should align with environmental protection to achieve long-term ecological balance.

Recognized in Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000), where the court balanced developmental needs with environmental conservation.

Absolute Liability:

Industries involved in hazardous activities are absolutely liable for any environmental harm caused, without exceptions.

Established in M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case, 1987).

Legislation Supporting Sustainable Development

Environment Protection Act, 1986:

Provides a framework for environmental protection and empowers the government to take measures for sustainable development.

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Forest Conservation Act, 1980:

Focus on conserving biodiversity and forests.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:

Regulate pollution and aim to maintain ecological balance.

Judicial Activism in Sustainable Development

The Indian judiciary has played a proactive role in fostering sustainable development through Public Interest Litigations (PILs) and landmark judgments. It often invokes international conventions, such as the Rio Declaration (1992), to bolster its reasoning.

For instance, in Vellore Citizens’ Welfare Forum v. Union of India, the Court explicitly adopted the principles of sustainable development, setting a precedent for balancing environmental and developmental goals.

Conclusion

The principles of sustainable development in India ensure harmony between environmental conservation and developmental aspirations. By embedding these principles in constitutional mandates, judicial interpretations, and environmental statutes, India promotes an equitable and environmentally sustainable future.

Save energy @ office

Energy efficiency monitoring, Energy monitoring

22 ways to save energy in the workplace

Reducing energy use in the workplace is a top priority for many businesses right now, with climate change and rising energy bills forcing us all to rethink how much we consume.

Getting started can seem daunting, but it doesn’t have to be. Simple changes can make a big difference. The Energy Saving Trust estimates that the average small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) could reduce energy bills by 18-25% by installing energy efficiency measures and implementing behavioural change.

Saving energy at workplace with Pressac sensorsWith that in mind, we’ve compiled our favourite energy saving initiatives in the workplace.

Some take advantage of the latest technology, some come down to good old-fashioned common sense. And while some require planning and investment, others can be implemented for free in a matter of minutes.

Lighting

1. LED Bulbs

To begin with, switch to energy-efficient light bulbs. LED bulbs can help you save as much as 80% on lighting.

2. Natural Light

Make use of natural light from windows and skylights. Don’t rely on artificial light when it’s bright outside – save it for gloomy days and dark evenings. Daylight blinds can help with this, reducing glare but still allowing natural light to enter the space and reflect on to the ceiling.

3. Regular Maintenance

Ensure regular maintenance takes place. Carbon Trust figures show that light levels can fall by up to 30% over the course of 2-3 years without ongoing maintenance. Good maintenance can reduce costs by up to 15% over that period.

4. Dimmed Lights

Take the brightness down a notch. Dimmed lights use less electricity and can be linked to sensors that turn up the light as the daylight outside decreases.

5. Occupancy Monitoring Sensors

a man switching of the light when leaving the roomDon’t leave lights on in unoccupied rooms – and make sure everyone shares the responsibility for this. Use stickers above light switches, and send reminders in staff emails or on your intranet.

Consider using occupancy monitoring sensors to help automate lighting controls depending on whether the room is in use – they can help save up to 30% on lighting costs and can be implemented for free in a matter of minutes.

Heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC)

6. Turn down the heat by 1°C

Reducing heating temperatures by just 1°C can cut fuel consumption by 8%. In a large office this can save enough energy to print over 40 million sheets of paper.

7. Treat draughts

Treat sources of draughts before spending money on heating, ventilation or cooling systems. Repair any damage. Holes and gaps around walls, windows, doors and skylights should be fixed straight away.

8. Time your heating

Check that system operating hours match the times when areas are in use. Make changes to controls based on working patterns. Consider a timer system to automatically turn systems off at the end of the day or look into a smart building management system that can be linked with occupancy sensors to automate control depending on whether there are people in the room.

9. Get better insulated

Use loft and cavity wall insulation. A building can lose up to 40% of heat through its roof.

10. Ensure sufficient space between desks

Check that employee desks aren’t too close or too far from radiators and air-conditioning.

11. Check windows are closed

a person holding AC remote control pointing at HVAC

Encourage common sense. If a room feels cold, check windows are closed before reaching for the heating controls. If it’s warm and stuffy, turn the heating off before you open a window. Air quality sensors can monitor the conditions in each room or zone, and when linked with a smart building management system can automate controls like this to keep rooms at a comfortable temperature in the most energy-efficient way possible.

12. Consider automatic doors

If you have a lot of footfall in and out of the building, consider using automatic doors to minimise the amount of heat that escapes.

Appliances

13. Switch off unused appliances!

A young frmale professional using a photocopierRemind employees to switch off all computers and other equipment that isn’t being used.

If people need a little extra encouragement or they’re worried about powering down essential equipment, E.ON recommends introducing a traffic-light system: a red sticker means don’t turn off, an amber sticker means only authorised people can switch the appliance off, and green means anyone can

14. Don't rely on standby mode

Surprisingly, appliances left on standby still use up to 50% of the energy they use when in operation, and appliances continue to draw power even if they’re just plugged in

15. Take advantage of energy-saving settings

Check whether appliances have an energy-saving setting and encourage everyone to use them as the default. Upgrade outdated, energy-intensive equipment. Energy-efficient devices cost more, but they’ll save the company money in the long term.

Machines and equipment

16. Check kitchen equipment

Don’t forget kitchen equipment – are seals on fridges in good condition? Are kettles used to only boil the water that’s needed? Is the coffee machine/fridge energy efficient?

17. Consider energy monitoring sensors

Energy monitoring sensors can help identify equipment that is using an unusually high amount of power, helping to spot potential faults or breakdowns before they occur.

18. Set up a maintenance schedule

A female engineer repairing a machine at a shop floor in a factory

Well-maintained equipment is more efficient and lasts longer.

Keep equipment free from obstructions and clean fans and filters regularly to prevent overheating.

19. Check whether you're eligible for tax breaks

Some local governments and utilities companies provide tax incentives or rebates when you buy energy-efficient appliances. A good place to start is to check Ofgem site (UK).

20. Consider installing solar panels

While they may be expensive initially, over a few years the free energy they generate can more than make up for the cost of installation.

21. Plant trees outside your office

Leafy trees offer shade in summer and help keep out chilly winds in winter, and you’re helping the planet. It’s a win-win!

22. Get an energy audit!

Last but not least, get an energy audit. Lots of utility companies offer free audits to help you identify ways to save.

All in all, we’ve put these tips together with an office environment in mind, but many of them still stand no matter what kind of business you operate.

Enjoyed our energy saving tips for businesses?

If our office energy saving tips have peaked your interest in the role smart sensors can play in your energy-saving plans you can read more here. Or you contact our smart sensor experts who can talk you through the best options for your organisation.

Here are some ways to save energy in an office:

Lighting

Use LED bulbs, which are more efficient and last longer than traditional bulbs. You can also use automatic devices like motion sensors, dimmers, and timers to turn lights on and off. 

Electronics

Turn off computers, monitors, printers, and other equipment when not in use. You can also put electronics into sleep mode when they're not being used. 

Thermostat

Use a programmable thermostat to set the temperature to a comfortable level. 

HVAC

Check for leaks and disconnects in furnace ducts, and ensure they're well insulated. 

Water heater

Insulate the water heater, hot water piping, and tanks. You can also install low-flow faucets, shower heads, urinals, and toilets. 

Windows and doors

Keep windows and exterior doors closed when the office is heated or air conditioned. 

Energy audit

Have an energy auditor survey your building to determine how much energy it uses and how to reduce it. 

Energy management system

Use an energy management system (EMS) to switch into setback mode when the office is unoccupied. 

Landlord

If you rent office space, work with your landlord to improve the building's efficiency

Specifications for green ammonia storage tanks:

 Here are some specifications for green ammonia storage tanks:

Design

Ammonia storage tanks should be double-walled and double-integrity, with insulation on the outer wall. The tank should be designed to withstand a hydrostatic test. 

Construction

The tank should be made of low temperature materials and designed for product deriving loads. The inner and outer tank walls and bottoms should be made of low temperature materials. 

Foundation

The tank should be erected on an elevated piled concrete slab foundation. 

Instrumentation

The tank should be equipped with instrumentation to monitor and control normal operation and emergencies. 

Valves

The tank should have pressure relief valves and vacuum relief valves to manage emergencies. 

Nitrogen line

The tank should have a nitrogen line and distribution ring at the tank bottom for purging operations. 

Storage

Ammonia can be stored in bulk as a liquid at modest pressures (10-15 bar) or refrigerated to -33°C. 

Location

Ammonia should be stored in a cool, dry, well ventilated area, out of direct sunlight, away from heat and ignition sources, away from flammable materials and process handling areas. 

The Green hydrogen storage tanks are divided in three categories namely:

Green Hydrogen Storage Tank Manufacturer

The Green Hydrogen storage tanks are the tanks used for storage of Green / PV Hydrogen produced using solar energy as the energy source with zero emission. The Green hydrogen storage tanks are divided in three categories namely:

High pressure ( 300 bar g to 100 bar g )

Medium pressure ( 100 bar g to 50 bar g)

Low pressure ( 50 bar g to 20 bar g )

Design Codes and Standards:

The tanks are designed and constructed confirming to various international design codes and standards like ASME Section VIII Div 1, Div 2, EN 13445-3, PD 5500, AD 2000 and various other recognized international codes for contraction of unfired pressure vessels. Finite Element Analysis ( FEA) is carried out for each tank design for various load cases and load combinations to study and determine the integrity of the vessel over its entire life cycle.

Types of Green Hydrogen storage tanks :

The Green hydrogen storage tanks are divided into various types as follows :

Gaseous Hydrogen storage tanks

Liquid Hydrogen storage tanks ( Cryogenic tanks )

Horizontal cylindrical with Hemispherical ends

Vertical cylindrical with Hemispherical ends

Hydrogen Spherical storage tanks

Important Features of Green Hydrogen storage tanks:

Design and Engineering using software like PV Elite etc

The Finite Element Analysis is carried out in ANSYS 2019R2

Reasonable cost of tanks.

Timely and shortest possible lead time and delivery time.

Stringent Quality assurance and Quality procedures ( QAP , ITP, etc )

Stringent Quality Control

Use of qualified and certified welders and Engineers

Use of calibrated machines and equipment.

Destructive and Non-destructive test as per code like Radiography Test, Dye Penetrant Test, Ultra sonic Test of plates, Magnetic particle Florescent Test of weld seams , Hydro test and Production coupon plate testing.

Post weld heat treatment / Post forming heat treatment carried out for each vessel as per code requirement for relieving of stresses after welding.

Inspection by recognized international third party inspection agencies like DNV, BV, LLyods, TUV, etc

India ESG Summit 2025-Global Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG): Transforming Industries with Sustainability-

Home Sustainability ESG

Global Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG): Transforming Industries with Sustainability

Global Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG): Transforming Industries with Sustainability

India ESG Summit 2025

NEW DELHI (India CSR): Global Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) standards are redefining how industries operate by emphasizing environmental conservation, social responsibility, and ethical governance. These standards aim to reduce carbon emissions, manage waste effectively, minimize environmental degradation, and promote sustainable business practices. For the coal industry, ESG compliance means adopting cleaner technologies, improving labor practices, and increasing transparency in operations. This article explores the growing impact of ESG standards on industries, with a special focus on coal companies and their efforts to align with global benchmarks.

Environmental Impact: Reducing Carbon Footprints

Cleaner Technologies for Sustainable Mining

ESG standards require industries, particularly coal companies, to minimize their environmental impact. This includes adopting mechanized coal extraction and transport systems to reduce emissions. Under Clause 11.5 of the Coal Block Development and Production Agreement (CBDPA), successful bidders are mandated to use modern technologies that lower carbon footprints and promote sustainability.

Key Environmental Initiatives

Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) under the Ministry of Coal have undertaken several environmental initiatives:

India ESG Summit 2025

Afforestation and Green Cover Development: Coal India Limited (CIL) has invested in large-scale afforestation projects to enhance biodiversity and reduce ecological damage.

Water Management: Efficient use of mine water for community supply and recycling initiatives.

Emission Reductions: Implementation of cleaner coal technologies and blast-free mining methods to curb air pollution.

Energy Efficiency: Deployment of energy-efficient measures such as electric vehicles and renewable energy projects, including solar parks and wind energy systems.

These efforts demonstrate the coal sector’s commitment to minimizing environmental degradation and embracing sustainable practices.

Social Impact: Strengthening Communities and Workers

Fair Labor Practices and Community Engagement

Social aspects of ESG emphasize the welfare of workers and local communities. Coal companies are now more accountable for providing fair labor practices, ensuring health and safety standards, and actively engaging with the communities affected by their operations.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Initiatives

Coal India Limited (CIL) and other PSUs have implemented robust CSR programs, focusing on:

Building schools, hospitals, and other community infrastructure.

Providing skill development training for local youth.

Ensuring healthcare and livelihood support for families in mining areas.

These initiatives aim to enhance the quality of life for workers and communities, creating a more inclusive business environment.

Governance Impact: Transparency and Accountability

Disclosure of ESG Performance

Governance under ESG standards stresses transparency, ethical practices, and robust risk management. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has made it mandatory for the top 1,000 listed companies to disclose their ESG performance through Business Responsibility and Sustainability Reports (BRSR). This framework aligns with global reporting standards, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) and the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB).

Coal India Limited has published its BRSR for FY 2023-24 as part of its annual report, linking financial performance with sustainability goals. The report includes:

Details of environmental initiatives.

Social responsibility measures.

Governance practices ensuring transparency.

The document, filed with NSE and BSE, serves as a public declaration of the company’s ESG efforts, fostering stakeholder trust and accountability.

Regular audits and assessments of ESG initiatives.

Public disclosure of sustainability goals and progress.

Establishing a governance framework to monitor compliance and ethical practices.

Global Alignment and Future Prospects

Aligning with International Standards

Indian industries are increasingly aligning with global ESG standards, aiming to meet international benchmarks for sustainability. This alignment is critical for enhancing their global competitiveness and attracting environmentally conscious investors.

Challenges and Opportunities

While ESG compliance requires significant investment in technology and infrastructure, it also opens opportunities for innovation, collaboration, and long-term growth. Companies that adopt these standards are better positioned to build resilience against regulatory risks and market uncertainties

Global ESG standards are transforming industries by promoting sustainability, social responsibility, and ethical governance. For coal companies, this shift involves adopting cleaner technologies, engaging with communities, and ensuring transparent operations. Initiatives such as afforestation, renewable energy adoption, and BRSR disclosures highlight the sector’s commitment to sustainable growth.

As industries continue to embrace ESG principles, they not only contribute to a healthier planet but also build trust with stakeholders and secure a competitive edge in the global market. The journey toward sustainability is challenging but essential for long-term success in a rapidly changing World 

India CSR is the largest media on CSR and sustainability offering diverse content across multisectoral issues on business responsibility. It covers Sustainable Development, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), Sustainability, and related issues in India. Founded in 2009, the organisation aspires to become a globally admired media that offers valuable information to its readers through responsible reporting.

    

India has experienced extreme weather events on 93% of days in 2024

 India has experienced extreme weather events on 93% of days in 2024, including heatwaves, coldwaves, cyclones, heavy rain, floods, and landslides. These events have had a significant impact on India, including: 

Temperature

January was India's ninth driest month since 1901, while February saw the second-highest minimum temperature in 123 years. July, August, and September saw the highest minimum temperatures since 1901. 

Monsoon

The 2024 monsoon had the highest number of heavy rainfall events, with June seeing the second-highest number of very heavy rainfall events. 

Heat

Western India, including Delhi, experienced a period of intense heat from May 18-20, 2024. 

Damage

The events have claimed 3,238 lives, affected 3.2 million hectares of crops, destroyed 235,862 houses, and killed approximately 9,457 livestock. 

Economic impact

The heat is expected to have a negative impact on the economy. 

Climate change is making weather events more intense. Human-caused climate change made the heat event in western India in May 2024 more likely. 

The Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024,

 The Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024, introduced in the Lok Sabha on August 1, 2024, aims to improve India's disaster management framework: 

Establish Urban Disaster Management Authorities (UDMAs) 

Empower National and State Disaster Management Authorities (NDMA and SDMAs) 

Create a comprehensive disaster database 

Provide statutory status to existing bodies 

Empower the state government to constitute a State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) 

Insert a new Section 60A to empower the Central and State governments to impose penalties 

The bill has been criticized for potential centralization of power, resource allocation issues, and concerns over constitutional validity. 

Here are some other details about the bill:

The bill seeks to amend the 2005 Disaster Management Act. 

The bill mandates the creation of a disaster database that will include information on disaster assessment, fund allocation, expenditure, preparedness and mitigation plans, and a risk register. 

The bill provides statutory status to existing bodies such as the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and the High Level Committee (HLC). 

IIT Bombay, HSBC India launch green hydrogen programme, shortlist six projects

IIT Bombay, HSBC India launch green hydrogen programme, shortlist six projects

The initiative, aimed at advancing green hydrogen technologies, aligns with India’s National Green Hydrogen Mission and seeks to address critical challenges in hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and utilization.

New Delhi: The IIT Bombay and HSBC India Green Hydrogen Programme has shortlisted six innovative projects from proposals submitted by six IITs, the National Institute of Technology (NIT), and the Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research (IISER). The initiative, aimed at advancing green hydrogen technologies, aligns with India’s National Green Hydrogen Mission and seeks to address critical challenges in hydrogen production, storage, transportation, and utilization

The six projects were selected through a stringent process by a steering committee comprising industry experts and senior IIT Bombay faculty. These projects will be incubated at IIT Bombay and supported until they are commercially ready.

The innovations include a locally designed multi-stack alkaline electrolyzer, indigenous hydrogen storage systems, and a sustainable burner offering alternatives to traditional combustion processes. The projects also focus on cost-effective hydrogen production methods, tools for safe hydrogen blending with natural gas, and high-efficiency hydrogen generators.

“This partnership underscores our commitment to achieving a low-carbon economy,” HSBC India CEO Hitendra Dave said. “The innovative ideas received through this programme show immense potential to make green hydrogen scalable and economically viable. We look forward to supporting these technologies alongside IIT Bombay.”

IIT Bombay Director Prof. Shireesh Kedare highlighted the collaboration’s importance in achieving energy independence, stating that the programme aligns with the Indian government’s green hydrogen goals. “Green hydrogen is poised to become a cornerstone of India’s energy transition. These projects will accelerate research and catalyze a cleaner, self-reliant India,” he said.

The National Green Hydrogen Mission, unveiled in 2023, aims to produce 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030, bolstering renewable energy capacity by 125 GW and significantly reducing carbon dioxide emissions. The mission positions hydrogen as a strategic alternative fuel with wide-ranging applications across industries.

Green hydrogen is seen as a critical component in diversifying energy sources, reducing emissions, and creating jobs in emerging green sectors. The six projects are expected to contribute significantly to India’s efforts to establish a robust green hydrogen economy.

SAFETY MATURITY INDEX The Five Eras of Safety Maturity

SAFETY MATURITY INDEX

The Five Eras of Safety Maturity

Discover the 5 Eras of Safety Maturity, from reactive measures to data-driven assurance, and how organizations can evolve toward proactive safety cultures.

Key Takeaways

Evolution of Workplace Safety: The five eras of workplace safety maturity highlight how safety management has evolved from a reactive, dangerous environment during the "Era of Death" to a proactive, data-driven approach in the current "Era of Assurance."

Era of Death: The late 1800s to early 1900s was marked by high industrial fatalities and unsafe working conditions, with little to no safety protocols in place. Tragic events like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire pushed the need for safety reforms.

Era of Engineering: From the early 1900s to the 1970s, engineering solutions like safer machinery and fire escapes were introduced to mitigate risks, but safety improvements were inconsistent and lacked standardization across industries.

Era of Compliance and Era of Consensus Standards: Starting in the 1970s, formal regulations like OSHA were established, making compliance mandatory. By the 1990s, industries adopted consensus standards (ISO, ANSI) to go beyond compliance and continuously improve safety practices.

Era of Assurance: Since the 2010s, organizations have focused on ensuring the effectiveness of safety systems through data, evidence, and cross-functional collaboration. The goal is not just compliance but proving that safety processes are delivering tangible improvements and reducing risks.

As one of the most tragic days in American workplace history . . . the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire still serves as a reminder that every measure must be taken to protect worker safety.

- AMERICAN SOCIETY OF SAFETY PROFESSIONALS

Introduction

From the late 1800s to the present day, the approach organizations have taken towards workplace safety has changed dramatically, reflecting advancements in industrial practices, regulatory oversight, and organizational culture. These eras demonstrate how safety management has gradually moved from a reactive, compliance-based approach to a more proactive, systemic one.

In this blog, we will look at each of the Five Eras of Safety Maturity:

In addition to bringing to light industry's changing approach to safety management, this historical progression will also serve as a foundation for our next post on the levels of safety maturity that organizations should strive for.

1. Era of Death (Late 1800s – Early 1900s)

The Era of Death refers to the early days of industrialization, when workers transitioned from rural agricultural work to hazardous industrial environments. As factories grew and cities expanded, workers found themselves in dangerous, unregulated conditions, operating heavy machinery and building skyscrapers with little to no safety protocols in place. This era earned its grim name because once incidences were finally being tracked, the number of fatalities was startling. The new data revealed just how deadly industrial jobs were at the time.

During this era, safety knowledge was practically non-existent. Employers prioritized production over protection, and workers faced high fatality rates due to unsafe working conditions. Accidents were seen as an unavoidable part of the job and there were no safety standards, regulations, or oversight. Without legal requirements, employers rarely invested in worker safety.  

A formative incident from this period was the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911, where 146 garment workers — most of them young women — died in a high-rise building with no proper fire escapes or emergency plans. The fire underscored the tragic consequences of ignoring basic safety practices like fire safety measures and proper equipment. While this terrible incident galvanized public attention, it is seen as a key moment in safety history that highlighted the critical need for workplace safety reforms and standardized safety practice. This in turn lead to the advancement of workplace health, and safety regulations in the United States through the creation of new groups such as the American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP) and National Safety Council (NSC).

Though this era is marked by high death rates and unsafe conditions, it laid the groundwork for future safety improvements. The tragedies of the Era of Death pushed industry leaders and the public to recognize the importance of protecting workers.

2. Era of Engineering (Early 1900s to the 1970s)

The Era of Engineering was driven by the need to address widespread industrial fatalities and accidents. This period saw safety concerns begin to be taken seriously as organizations sought to engineer solutions to prevent the deadly incidents of the past.

The tragic events of the early 1900s highlighted the inadequacies of existing workplace structures and practices. Engineering solutions, like fire escapes and safer building designs, were introduced in response. The era was characterized by a focus on improving machinery, equipment, and facilities to prevent accidents.

During this time, professional organizations began to form, most notably the American Society of Safety Professionals (originally called the American Society of Safety Engineers), which played a key role in promoting safety through engineering. Safety improvements were largely technical, aimed at mitigating the hazards of dangerous equipment, poor ventilation, and unsafe building designs.

However, despite these advancements, there was still no standardization across industries. Different sectors lacked a unified approach to safety, which limited the effectiveness of these early engineering-driven improvements. While organizations were becoming more aware of the importance of worker safety, the absence of consistent safety regulations meant that many hazards persisted.

This era marked the beginning of systematic efforts to reduce workplace risks through technology and design, laying the groundwork for the next phase in safety evolution. The Era of Engineering brought critical improvements but showed that engineering solutions alone were not enough without formal standards.

3. Era of Compliance (1970s – 1990s)

The Era of Compliance began in the 1970s with the establishment of formalized safety regulations, marking a significant shift in workplace safety. The creation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States in 1970, along with similar regulatory agencies like the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in the UK, set the foundation for this era. These organizations introduced legal requirements for workplace safety, which enforced standards for training, protective equipment, and injury reporting.

Federal and state regulations in the United States, such as the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), became the benchmark for evaluating whether employers were meeting safety standards. Compliance with these standards became essential, and failure to do so resulted in penalties, fines, or other enforcement actions. This era was characterized by a strong focus on compliance metrics like total recordable incident rate (TRIR), which became the primary indicator of safety performance.

As organizations adhered to these new standards, this era saw a marked improvement in safety, with injury rates significantly decreasing even as the workforce grew in numbers. However, by the late 1990s, it became evident that while compliance had significantly reduced injury rates, it had limitations. Fatalities in the workplace had plateaued and even began to rise slightly, signaling that compliance alone could not fully address the complexities of modern industrial risks.

4. Era of Consensus Standards (1990s – 2000s)

The Era of Consensus Standards emerged in the late 1990s as organizations realized that compliance alone could not fully address workplace safety. As such, this era introduced consensus-based standards that moved beyond legal compliance, focusing on best practices and continuous improvement.

During this period, industry experts, researchers, and international bodies developed standards such as the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). These standards, including ISO 45001 (formerly OHSAS 18001), provided frameworks for safety management systems that allowed organizations to address safety more comprehensively. The Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle became widely adopted as a method for ongoing risk management and process improvement.

Unlike regulatory standards, consensus standards were not enforced by law but were seen as best practices recognized globally. They allowed organizations to keep pace with the evolving complexities of modern industries, such as faster machinery, new chemical processes, and ergonomic challenges. Regulatory bodies like OSHA even began incorporating consensus standards by reference, acknowledging that these guidelines often outpaced formal regulations.

The Era of Consensus Standards helped organizations go beyond compliance to proactively manage safety risks, address emerging hazards, and drive continuous improvement. It emphasized a systems-based approach that integrated safety into business operations.

5. Era of Assurance (2010s – 2020s)

The Era of Assurance, beginning in the early 2010s, marks a shift toward evidence-based safety practices that go beyond compliance and consensus standards, while still remaining dependent upon them as foundational. This era emphasizes not only having safety management systems in place but also proving their effectiveness through data and measurable results. Organizations moved from focusing on simply having safety processes to ensuring those processes deliver real, tangible improvements in workplace safety.

In this era, safety management has become more integrated across business functions such as procurement, operations, and human resources. Companies have begun adopting leading indicators, which measure proactive safety efforts (such as training and hazard identification) rather than just lagging indicators like injury rates. This approach has allowed organizations to predict and prevent incidents rather than simply react to them.

The Era of Assurance has also brought a focus on cross-functional collaboration within organizations, where safety became a shared responsibility across departments. Safety management systems (SMS) are increasingly driven by data, evidence, and continuous improvement frameworks like ISO 45001. Auditing and verification of safety practices have become key components, with companies needing to demonstrate that their safety systems are actively working to reduce risk.

By collecting and analyzing data, organizations can demonstrate assurance that their safety efforts are not just theoretical but effective in practice. This era reflects a mature understanding of safety, where compliance is seen as a baseline and the goal is to continuously improve through a proactive, evidence-based approach. As companies strive for higher safety performance, the Era of Assurance has paved the way for more innovative and transformative safety cultures.

Conclusion: Looking Ahead to Safety Maturity Levels

The evolution of safety practices has taken organizations from the uninformed, hazardous days of the Era of Death through the structured approaches of the Era of Assurance, where safety is driven by data, proactive measures, and cross-functional collaboration. We’re fortunate to be part of an era where industry’s understanding of safety has reached such an advanced level of maturity.

Understanding the history of safety maturity, however, is only part of the equation. In Blog 2, we’ll dive deeper into the specific levels of organizational safety maturity — from Pathological to Transformative — to explore how businesses can progress through these stages. We’ll discuss how organizations can elevate their safety performance, not just by meeting compliance requirements, but by creating innovative and collaborative safety cultures that go beyond mere prequalification and compliance.

Top Challenges in Process Safety

 EHS 

SAFETY LEADERSHIP

Top Challenges in Process Safety

Nov. 27, 2024

Experienced personnel are leaving and facilities are aging, increasing the likelihood of something going wrong.

While intention is admirable, it’s actions that count. And when it comes to process safety, 66% of companies cited disparities between process safety goals and reality, according to a report from Sphera.

“The stakes are higher than ever for process safety improvements,” said Paul Marushka, Sphera’s CEO, in a statement. “Our newest Process Safety Report shows that experienced personnel are exiting the industry, aging facilities are increasing the likelihood of something going wrong — such as incidents with facilities, equipment or people — and visibility into potential hazardous incidents continues to be limited for many organizations that have not adopted proven digital capabilities. 

“On the bright side, we have seen increased interest from senior management who appreciate the connections between improved systems, profitability and competitiveness. The reality is that improving process safety performance helps to keep people, assets and the environment safe while also reducing costs for stakeholders.”  

Compliance is Driving Force 

Over time, there has been a material shift in process safety ownership. Compliance obligations and sustainability regulations could be why nearly one-third (32%) of respondents now say senior leadership is driving process safety compared to 29% in 2023.

Three-quarters (74%) of respondents agree that regulations have helped improve safety; yet, just over half of respondents (56%) believe that organizations have moved beyond compliance as an obligation.

The top drivers for improving safety performance are:

Reducing major accident hazard (MAH) exposure (61%)

Operational excellence/ process improvement (52%)

Regulatory compliance (41%).

These top drivers remain the same from last year’s report but the biggest increase from this year is the focus on production uptime (reducing downtime) — now 36%, up from 29% — which is a critical concern for senior leadership.

Lag in Technology 

Companies have made progress, with respondents noting that digital tools and real-time data are seen as effective with just over half (51%) pointing to the reduced vulnerability to MAHs. Despite these advances, less than one in four organizations (23%) complete all safety-critical maintenance activities on time and on schedule and just one in ten (9%) are confident they are aware of all MAHs.

Looking to the future — as plants get older the probability and consequences of incidents become more significant — almost four in ten respondents (39%) are concerned about lack of visibility into operational risk.

Workforce Factors 

The survey found that human factors are seen as the top challenge to delivering effective process safety management, with 40% indicating management involvement and 41% indicating competency as top concerns. This is compounded by experienced personnel leaving the workforce with nearly half of respondents (49%) seeing the loss of and lack of experienced workers as the top factor to increase risks.

Demand for Hydrogen Fueling Station to Reach $1.8 Billion by 2030

Demand for Hydrogen Fueling Station to Reach $1.8 Billion by 2030

According to a research report, the hydrogen fueling stations market is expected to grow from USD 0.5 billion in 2024 to USD 1.8 billion by 2030, with a CAGR of 23.8% during the forecast period. Governments worldwide are implementing stringent environmental regulations and setting ambitious climate goals to reduce carbon emissions. Hydrogen, being a clean and renewable energy source, plays a crucial role in achieving these targets. Policies promoting the use of hydrogen as a fuel, along with incentives and subsidies for hydrogen infrastructure, are driving the growth of hydrogen fueling stations. In addition to this, Major automotive manufacturers are increasingly investing in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) as a sustainable alternative to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles and battery electric vehicles (BEVs).

Key Market Players

Air Liquide (France),

Linde PLC (Ireland),

Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. (US),

Nel ASA (Norway),

MAXIMATOR Hydrogen GmbH (Germany)

Hydrogen Refueling Solutions (France) among others...

Hydrogen fuelling stations usually use either provided hydrogen or on-site generated hydrogen. Hydrogen is being delivered in truck/pipeline or in liquid hydrogen form, and it is normally compressed gaseous hydrogen or liquid hydrogen. Delivery stations have very simple operating and infrastructure, so the investment cost is low. The cost of hydrogen will, however, be entirely dependent upon the retail price of hydrogen and utility costs over which the end user has no control, despite the fact that they may align with the conditions for operation at the agreed price. Noting that the price of hydrogen fuel includes delivery and lease costs of the vehicle, these can also be of the same order as the retail hydrogen price. Hydrogen fueling stations with on-site supplies are complex because an HPP is combined with the fueling station, and compression units have to be installed. Higher operational flexibility is naturally associated with higher CAPEX. On the other hand, low-price electricity contracts or even self-production of electricity from renewable energies could substantially reduce the OPEX.

Fixed Hydrogen Stations, by station type, are expected to be the largest-growing segment during the forecast period.

The by station size segment is bifurcated into 2 types Fixed Hydrogen Stations and Mobile Hydrogen Stations. In most cases, fixed hydrogen stations have higher storage and dispensing capacity than their mobile station counterparts, which helps them meet the high demands in busy areas. Fixed stations can be fitted into the existing infrastructure of fueling stations, such as conventional gas stations, thereby making them more accessible and convenient for consumers. Besides, fixed stations offer a stable and reliable supply of hydrogen gas without the logistical complications involved in the transportation of the mobile units from one location to another. Moreover, fixed stations are usually provided with much more support and incentives from the government, including subsidies, grants, and favorable regulations, in order to motivate them to develop and deploy.

Asia Pacific is expected to be the largest region during the forecast period.

Countries like Japan, Korea, and China in the Asia Pacific region are home to major automobile manufacturers like Toyota, Hyundai, and Honda at the front line of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle technology. Their leadership in this commitment keeps them at the forefront in stimulating the demand for hydrogen fueling stations to support their vehicles. Moreover, the Asia Pacific countries suffer more from air pollution and hence are more willing to use clean energy solutions. Hydrogen, being a zero-emission fuel, gives them impetus on environmental grounds, resulting in more support for hydrogen fueling stations compared to those regions where the problem of pollution is not that grave. Nations like Japan and South Korea have drafted national strategies for hydrogen, clearly stipulating the objectives and roadmaps to develop hydrogen infrastructure. This sets a structured approach toward the rollout of hydrogen fueling stations, ensuring coordinated efforts across different sectors. The rapid urbanization and industrialization underway in the Asia Pacific region spur demand for clean energy solutions. The hydrogen fueling stations are part of a broader effort. These would serve two important functions: supportable urban development and the fulfillment of energy needs for increasing industrial sectors.

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity

Hydrometers- A Guide to applications and usage A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water. A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall container, often a graduated cylinder, or specially designed hydrometer cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is noted. Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be read directly. A variety of scales exist, and are used depending on the context, this includes Specific Gravity (SG), Baume, Twaddle and mg/L. Below we explain a little about the more specialist types of hydrometers available. 

 Lactometer A lactometer (or galactometer) is a hydrometer used to test milk. The specific gravity of milk does not give a conclusive indication of its composition since milk contains a variety of substances that are either heavier or lighter than water. Additional tests for fat content are necessary to determine overall composition. The instrument is graduated into a hundred parts. Milk is poured in and allowed to stand until the cream has formed, then the depth of the cream deposit in degrees determines the quality of the milk. Range 1.025 to 1.035 g/ml 

 Alcoholometer An alcoholometer is a hydrometer which is used for determining the alcoholic strength of liquids. It is also known as a Proof and Tralles hydrometer. It only measures the density of the fluid. Certain assumptions are made to estimate the amount of alcohol present in the fluid. Alcoholometers have scales marked with volume percents of "potential alcohol", based on a pre-calculated specific gravity. A higher "potential alcohol" reading on this scale is caused by a greater specific gravity, assumed to be caused by the introduction of dissolved sugars. A reading is taken before and after fermentation and approximate alcohol content is determined by subtracting the post fermentation reading from the pre-fermentation reading. Range 0.98 to 1.12 °SG 

Saccharometer A saccharometer is a hydrometer used for determining the amount of sugar in a solution, invented by Thomas Thomson. It is used primarily by winemakers and brewers, and it can also be used in making sorbets and ice-creams. It consists of a large weighted glass bulb with a thin stem rising from the top with calibrated markings. The sugar level can be determined by reading the value where the surface of the liquid crosses the scale. It works by the principle of buoyancy. A solution with a higher sugar content is denser, causing the bulb to float higher. Less sugar results in a lower density and a lower floating bulb. 

Thermohydrometer A thermohydrometer is a hydrometer that has a thermometer enclosed in the float section. For measuring the density of petroleum products, like fuel oils, the specimen is usually heated in a temperature jacket with a thermometer placed behind it since density is dependent on temperature. Light oils are placed in cooling jackets, typically at 15 °C. Very light oils with many volatile components are measured in a variable volume container using a floating piston sampling device to minimize light end losses. As a battery test it measures the temperature compensated specific gravity and electrolyte temperature. 

Urinometer A urinometer is a medical hydrometer designed for urinalysis. As urine's specific gravity is dictated by its ratio of solutes (wastes) to water, a urinometer makes it possible to quickly assess a patient's overall level of hydration. Range 1 to 1.06 °SG Soil Analysis A hydrometer analysis is the process by which fine-grained soils, silts and clays, are graded. Hydrometer analysis is performed if the grain sizes are too small for sieve analysis. The basis for this test is Stoke's Law for falling spheres in a viscous fluid in which the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain diameter and the densities of the grain in suspension and of the fluid. The grain diameter thus can be calculated from a knowledge of the distance and time of fall. The hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or density) of the suspension, and this enables the percentage of particles of a certain equivalent particle diameter to be calculated. Range 0.995 to 1.038 °

Thermometer and Its Types

Thermometer and Its Types

Thermometer (thermos: hot; metron: measure) is the universal instrument used to measure temperature. Temperature and heat are two words that often confuse people. For example, how do you explain the hotness of an object? What is the measure or basis for that hotness? The answer to that is temperature. Heat is a form of energy, and its unit is Joules. On the other hand, temperature is the measure of that heat. This means, if the heat is more, the temperature is more than well. But how do we measure temperature? We use a device called a thermometer to measure the temperature of any object.

Table of Contents

Temperature & Thermometer

Properties of Thermometric Liquid

Types of Thermometer

Clinical Thermometer

How to Read a Thermometer?

Laboratory Thermometer

Digital Thermometer

How to Use Digital Thermometer?

Infrared Ear Thermometer

How to Use Infrared Ear Thermometer?

Mercury Thermometer

Alcohol In Glass Thermometer

Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Thermocouple Thermometer

Pyrometer Thermometer

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Temperature & Thermometer

By definition, the temperature is the measurable extent of hotness or coldness. It is a mathematical representation of heat. There are different units to measure temperatures, like Celsius (˚C), Kelvin (K), and Fahrenheit (˚F).

There are different types of thermometers that are classified according to their needs. For example, there is one set of thermometers that are used to measure body temperature while another set of thermometers measure boiling point and freezing point during experiments. Here, we will discuss the two types of thermometers, namely, clinical thermometers and laboratory thermometers.

Properties of Thermometric Liquid

The liquid that is used in the thermometer needs to have some properties, and they are listed below:

The liquid used should be visible.

The thermal expansion of the liquid must be uniform.

The freezing point of the liquid used must be low.

Types of Thermometer

Following are the different types of thermometers that we use on a daily basis:

Clinical thermometer /medical thermometer

Laboratory thermometer

Digital thermometer

Infrared ear thermometer

Mercury thermometer

Alcohol in glass thermometer

Constant pressure gas thermometer

Constant volume thermometer

Platinum resistance thermometer

Thermocouple thermometer

Pyrometer thermometer

Clinical Thermometer

Clinical Thermometer

Clinical thermometers are meant for clinical purposes. 

It is developed for measuring the human body temperature. 

It is a long narrow glass tube with a bulb containing mercury at the end. 

The normal human body temperature is 37˚C, which can fluctuate between the ranges 35˚C to 42˚C. Hence, the clinical thermometers range from 35˚C to 42˚C.

The level of mercury tells our body temperature in ˚C. 

Since mercury is a toxic element, thus these thermometers have been replaced by digital thermometers nowadays.

Note: Clinical thermometers must be sterilized before use for a safe and clean check-up.

How to Read a Thermometer?

The thermometer is washed with water at a normal temperature.

It is given a few jerks. We notice that the jerks bring the level of mercury down. We ensure that it falls below the 37⁰C mark or the 98⁰F mark, the normal human body temperature.

The thermometer is then kept under the tongue or the arms to get the reading on the thermometer.

The thermometer is then held close to the eye, as shown in figure 3, to see the correct reading.

The temperature difference indicated between the two bigger marks is noted. Also, the number of divisions (shown by smaller marks) between these marks is noted. For e.g. the bigger mark reads 10 and the number of divisions is 5, then each division reads the value equal to 10/5 = 20

Thermometer

We note the value of the bigger mark that the mercury thread crossed (98 in Fig.4 Example 1). Then the number of the division of the mercury thread has crossed is noted (3 in this case). Now, this value is multiplied by the value of one division (which is 0.2 in this case). Hence, the temperature reading is 98 + (3×2) = 98.6.

Laboratory Thermometer

Since clinical thermometers can’t be used to measure temperature other than the human body, we need a special type of thermometers for other purposes. 

A laboratory thermometer, which is colloquially known as the lab thermometer, is used for measuring temperatures other than the human body temperature. 

It ranges from -10˚C to 110˚C. 

Laboratory thermometer Uses:

 Designed for lab purposes 

Checking the boiling point

Checking freezing point

Checking the temperature of other substances. 

Checking the temperature of a solvent but not a clinical one.

Laboratory Thermometer

Weather reporters also use maximum-minimum thermometers for measuring maximum and minimum temperatures of a place.

Learn more about thermometers, heat energy, and temperature with BYJU’S engaging video lectures.

Digital Thermometer

These thermometers measure the temperature through an electronic circuit. 

The information captured is sent to a microchip that processes it and displayed numerically on the digital screen. 

They are easy to use, inexpensive, and accurate. 

Digital thermometers can be considered advanced thermometers used for measuring body temperature.

How to Use Digital Thermometer?

Turn on the thermometer and click till the number zero appears on the display.

Place the tip of the thermometer under the armpit.

Wait for a few seconds before you hear the alarm from the thermometer.

Remove the thermometer and check for the temperature on the display.

After use, clean the tip of the thermometer with cotton and alcohol.

Infrared Ear Thermometer

Checking the body temperature using the inside of the ear is known as tympanic membrane temperature. 

This method is common when the temperature needs to be taken from the children as it is quick. 

An infrared thermometer captures the temperature in the form of infrared energy given off by the heat source.

How to Use Infrared Ear Thermometer?

The tip of the thermometer should be placed inside the ear, pointing toward the nose.

The power button on the thermometer should be pressed until a signal is heard.

Read the temperature value.

Remove the thermometer from the ear and clean the tip with cotton and alcohol.

Make sure the thermometer is not used for the ear containing a lot of wax.

Thermometers such as mercury thermometers, alcohol in glass thermometers, constant pressure gas thermometers, and platinum resistance thermometers are designed based on technology.

Mercury Thermometer

These thermometers are not used in some sectors since they can easily break. 

Mercury is a poisonous liquid that can cause health hazards. 

Mercury thermometers are used to provide accurate temperature readings. 

It is used to measure the temperature under the arm, orally and rectally.

Alcohol In Glass Thermometer

These are thermometers composed of sealed glass. 

Alcohol In Glass Thermometer shows the temperature by the level at which mercury or alcohol reaches a graduated scale. 

Temperature is indicated by the changes in liquid. 

Alcohol In Glass Thermometer features coloured alcohol due to the dangerous contact with mercury.

Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer

A constant pressure gas thermometer can function at constant pressure and volume conditions. 

Constant pressure gas thermometer offers highly accurate measurement and is used to adjust other thermometers.

Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

In a constant volume gas thermometer, the pressure increases when the temperature increases. 

Constant volume gas thermometer measures temperature in the range 0k to 500 k.

Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Platinum Resistance Thermometers use a platinum wire attached to an electrical resistance to measure the temperature. 

Generally, these thermometers are used to measure outside temperatures. 

Platinum Resistance Thermometers are slow and offer accurate readings.

The material’s resistance in the thermometer increases when the temperature increases. 

Platinum resistance thermometers measure temperature in the range of 500 k to 2300 k.

The resistance of the material in the thermometer increases when the temperature increases. Platinum resistance thermometers measure temperature in the range of 500 k to 2300 k.

Thermocouple Thermometer

These devices are used for the quick measurement of temperature. 

It finds its application in laboratories. 

Electrical resistance is used in the device to generate a voltage that varies according to the connection temperature.

 It also measures temperature in the range of 500 k to 2300 k.

Pyrometer Thermometer

The thermometer operates on Stefan’s law. 

This device measures the temperature from the heat radiation emitted by the objects. 

These thermometers can be used without being in contact with the objects. 

A pyrometer Thermometer measures a temperature greater than 2000 k.

Read more about: Heat and Classification

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1What are the properties of alcohol for thermometers?

The following are the properties of alcohol for thermometers:

The freezing point should be less than -112℃.

The boiling point should be 78℃.

The colour of the alcohol should be bright.

It should a good insulator of heat.

Measuring high temperatures should be feasible.

Q2How do you know if a thermometer is accurate?

To check if a thermometer is accurate, we need to insert the stem of the thermometer in the ice water such that the stem is at least an inch deep without touching the glass. Wait for a minute or less so that the thermometer registers the reading of the ice water. If the thermometer reading is 32℉ or 0℃, then the thermometer is said to be accurate.

Q3Who is the father of thermometer?

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit is considered to be the father of thermometers. He was a German physicist who dedicated his life to science and inventions. The modern mercury thermometer was invented by Fahrenheit. He is also credited for the invention of the mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Q4Why is mercury a good choice for thermometer?

Mercury is in a liquid state at room temperature and has the highest expansion coefficient. Therefore, even the slightest temperature change is notable. Also, the boiling point of the mercury makes it suitable for measuring higher temperatures. The other reason why mercury is used in thermometers is that it does not stick to the surface of the glass and has a shiny appearance.