Boiler Feedwater Treatment (Part II): Water Treatment Fundamentals
Contents
- Removing impurities from boiler feedwater
- Filtration
- Coagulation and flocculation
- Reaction of lime soda in softening process
- Ion exchange
- Deaeration of water
- Combination of ion exchange and lime process
- Reverse osmosis
- Internal treatment of boiler feedwater
- Blowdown
- Corrosion in steam condensate system
- Care of out-of-service boilers
Removing impurities from boiler feedwater
Feedwater is filtered to remove suspended matter and if the suspended
solids are very fine, a flocculation step may be needed to enable
effective filtration. The water is then subjected to other treatments to
make it suitable for the boiler. Depending on the quality of water, it
may be subjected to one or more treatments like
chemical precipitation, lime-soda softening, ion exchange, deaeration, and reverse osmosis.
Filtration
Filtration is the essential first step before the chemical treatment
and conditioning of the boiler feedwater. Filtration removes or
minimizes all types of suspended solid impurities. If rust, sand
(silica) etc. are not filtered out, they lead to severe scale formation,
which is difficult to clean and reduce boiler efficiency. Even the
condensate feedwater must be filtered before returning to the boiler.
The boiler itself and the steam piping produce rust particles etc. due
to corrosion and other reactions. Filtration is also necessary for any
water treatment process to work properly. For example, softening resins
get coated with suspended matter, loosing their effectiveness and
capacity to regenerate. Reverse osmosis membranes get fouled up leading
to reduced efficiency and shorter life. If the water is very dirty, sand
filtration is first done followed by cartridge filtration.
Coagulation and flocculation
Some times the suspended particles in water are so fine that even
cartridge filters are unable to remove them. In such a situation, before
cartridge filtration, the water is first treated with coagulants.
Coagulation is charge neutralization of finely divided and colloidal
impurities in water into masses that can be filtered. In addition,
particles have negative electrical charges, which cause them to repel
each other and resist adhering together. Coagulation, therefore,
involves neutralizing the negative charges and providing a nucleus for
the suspended particles to adhere to. Flocculation is the bridging
together of coagulated particles.
Types of coagulants
Iron and aluminum salts such as ferric sulfate, ferric chloride,
aluminum sulfate (alum), and sodium aluminate are the most common
coagulants. Ferric and alumina ions each have three positive charges and
therefore their effectiveness is related to their ability to react with
the negatively charged colloidal particles. These coagulants form a
floc in the water that serves like a net for collecting suspended
matter. Polyelectrolytes, which are synthetic materials, have been
developed for coagulation purposes. These consist of long chain-like
molecules with positive charges. In some cases organic polymers and
special types of clay are used in the coagulation process to serve as
coagulant aids. These assist in coagulation by making the floc heavier.
Chemical precipitation
Chemical precipitation is a process in which chemical added reacts
with dissolved minerals in the water to produce a relatively insoluble
reaction product. Precipitation methods are used in reducing dissolved
hardness, alkalinity, and silica. The most common example is lime-soda
treatment.
Reaction of lime and soda in softening process
Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) reacts with soluble calcium and
magnesium carbonates to form insoluble precipitates. They form a sludge
that can be removed by settling and filtration. Lime, therefore, can be
used to reduce hardness present in the bicarbonate form (temporary
hardness) as well as decrease the amount of bicarbonate alkalinity in
water. Lime reacts with magnesium sulfate and chloride and precipitates
magnesium hydroxide, but in this process soluble calcium sulfate and
chlorides are formed. Lime is not effective in removing calcium sulfates
and chlorides (permanent hardness). Soda ash is used primarily to
reduce non-bicarbonate hardness (permanent hardness). The calcium
carbonate formed by the reaction precipitates as sludge and can be
filtered out. The resulting sodium sulfate and chloride are highly
soluble and non-scale forming.
Methods of lime-soda softening
The older method of intermittent softening consists of mixing the
chemicals with the water in a tank, allowing time for reaction and
forming of sludge, and filtering and drawing off the clear water. The
modern method of continuous lime-soda softening involves use of
compartmented tanks with provision for (a) proportioning chemicals
continuously to the incoming water, (b) retention time for chemical
reactions and sludge formation, and © continuous draw-off of softened
water. Lime-soda softening is classified as hot or cold, depending on
the temperature of the water. Hot process softeners increase the rate of
chemical reactions, increase silica reduction, and produce over-all
better quality water.
Coagulants used in lime-soda process
In the initial clarification process, coagulants are used to
agglomerate fine suspended particles, which can then be filtered out.
Likewise, in the softening process, coagulants speed up settling of
sludge by 25-50%. Sodium aluminate used as a coagulant in lime-soda
softening being alkaline, also contributes to the softening reactions,
particularly in reducing magnesium. Proper uses of coagulants help
remove silica in the softening process. Silica tends to be adsorbed on
the floc produced by coagulation of sludge.
Disadvantages of lime-soda softening
The main disadvantage is that while hardness is reduced it is not
completely removed. Variations in raw water composition and flow rate
also make control of this method difficult since it involves adjusting
the amounts of lime and soda ash being fed.
Advantages of lime-soda softening
The main advantage is that in reducing hardness, alkalinity, total
dissolved solids, and silica are also reduced. Prior clarification of
the water is not usually necessary with the lime-soda process. Another
advantage is that with continuous hot process softening some removal of
oxygen and carbon dioxide can be achieved. Fuel savings can be realized
with hot process softening because of solids reduction. This reduction
decreases the conductivity of the feedwater, thereby decreasing blowdown
and conserving heat.
Ion Exchange
Minerals dissolved in water form electrically charged particles
called ions. Calcium carbonate, for example, forms a calcium ion with
positive charges (a cation) and a bicarbonate ion with negative charges
(an anion). Some synthetic and natural materials have the ability to
remove mineral ions from water in exchange for others. For example, in
passing water through a simple cation exchange softener all the calcium
and magnesium ions are removed and replaced with sodium ions. Ion
exchange resins usually are small porous beads that compose a bed
several feet deep through which the water is passed.
Types of ion exchange resins
Ion exchange resins are two types: cation and anion. Cation exchange
resins react only with positively charged ions like Ca+2 and Mg+2. Anion
exchange resins react only with the negatively charged ions like
bicarbonate (HCO3-) and sulfate (SO4-2). Although there are many types
of cation exchange resins, they usually operate on either a sodium or
hydrogen ‘cycle’. That is, they are designed to replace all cations
in the water with either sodium or hydrogen. The anion resins are of two
types: weak base and strong base. Weak base resins will not take out
carbon dioxide or silica, but will remove strong acid anions by a
process more similar to adsorption than ion exchange. Strong base anion
resins, on the other hand, can reduce carbon dioxide and silica as well
as strong acid anions to very low values. Strong base anion resins are
normally operated on a hydroxide cycle. Chloride anion exchange resin is
also used in dealkalization where alkalinity is reduced.
Ion exchange regeneration
Ion exchange resins have a certain capacity for removing ions from
water and when their capacity is used up they have to be regenerated.
The regeneration is essentially reversing the ion exchange process.
Cation exchangers operating on the sodium cycle, salt (NaCl) is added to
replenish the sodium capacity. Resins operating on the hydrogen cycle
are replenished by adding acid (H2SO4 or HCl). Anion exchangers are
normally regenerated with caustic (NaOH) or ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
to replenish the hydroxide ions. Salt (NaCl) may also be used to
regenerate anion resins in the chloride form for dealkalization.
Regeneration process involves taking the vessel off line and treating it
with concentrated solution of the regenerant. The ion exchange resin
then gives up the ions previously removed from water and these ions are
rinsed out of the vessel. After the regeneration has been completed, the
vessel is ready for further service.
Split-stream softening
When the effluents from a cation exchanger operating on sodium cycle
are blended with effluents from a cation exchanger operating on a
hydrogen cycle. The purpose is to reduce the alkalinity of the water.
Since the hydrogen cycle produces acid water while the sodium cycle does
not affect alkalinity, the two effluents can be blended together to
give the desired reduction in alkalinity.
Dealkalization
One of the ion exchange processes for reducing water alkalinity is
referred to as dealkalization. In this process the water passes through
an ion exchanger operating on the chloride cycle. The exchanger removes
alkaline anions such as carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfates, replacing
these ions with chloride. Cation exchange softening precedes
dealkalization process.
Demineralization
When the water is passed through both cation and anion exchange
resins it is known as demineralization. In this process the cation
exchange is operated on the hydrogen cycle. That is, hydrogen is
substituted for all the cations. The anion exchanger operates on the
hydroxide cycle, which replaces hydroxide for all of the anions. The
final effluent from the process consists essentially of hydrogen ions
and hydroxide ions or pure water. The demineralization process can be
done by several methods. In the mixed-bed process, the anion and cation
exchange resins are intimately mixed in one vessel. Multi-bed
arrangements may consist of different combinations of cation exchange
beds, weak and strong-based anion exchange beds, and degasifiers.
Disadvantages of ion exchange
Sodium cycle ion exchange softening disadvantage is that the total
solids, alkalinity, and silica contents of the raw water are not
reduced. In the case of cation exchange on the hydrogen cycle, the
disadvantage is the corrosion from the acid pH of the effluent. With
demineralization, the main difficulty is higher cost, particularly on
high solids raw water. Without an excellent pre-filtration arrangement,
fouling of the ion exchange material with suspended and colloidal matter
in the raw water can produce short runs, ion-exchange degradation, and
regeneration difficulties.
Advantages of ion exchange
A major advantage of ion exchange softening is the ease of process
control. Variations (within reasonable limits) of hardness in raw water
or in flow rate do not have an adverse effect on the completeness of
softening. The ion exchange system takes up less space than the
lime-soda system. Generally the ion exchange demineralization has the
ability to produce better quality boiler feedwater at an economical cost
than most other methods.
Deaeration of water
Dissolved oxygen in water is a major cause of boiler system
corrosion. It should be removed before the water is put in the boiler.
Feedwater deaeration removes oxygen by heating the water with steam in a
deaerating heater. Part of the steam is vented, carrying with it the
bulk of the dissolved oxygen.
Combination of ion exchange and lime process
As mention earlier, water containing suspended solids, organics, or
turbidity requires filtration/clarification prior to ion exchange.
Because simple cation exchange does not reduce the total solids of the
water supply, it is sometimes used in conjunction with precipitation
softening. A common combination treatment is the hot lime-zeolite
process. This involves pretreatment of the water with lime to reduce
hardness, alkalinity, silica, and subsequent filtration and a cation
exchange softening. This combination accomplishes several functions like
softening, alkalinity and silica reduction, some oxygen reduction, and
removal of suspended matter and turbidity.
Reverse osmosis
To understand reverse osmosis (RO), one must first understand
osmosis. Osmosis uses a semi-permeable membrane that allows ions to pass
from a more concentrated solution to a less concentrated solution
without allowing the reverse to occur. Reverse osmosis overcomes the
osmotic pressure with a higher artificial pressure to reverse the
process and concentrate the dissolved solids on one side of the
membrane. Operating pressures of about 300 to 900 psi are required to
achieve this. Reverse osmosis reduces the dissolved solids of the raw
water, making the final affluent ready for further treatment. This
process is suitable for any type of raw water, but sometimes the
installation and operation cost may not be economical.
Internal treatment of boiler feedwater
Internal treatment of water inside the boiler is essential whether or
not the feedwater has been pretreated. Internal treatment compliments
external treatment and is required regardless of whether the impurities
entering the boiler with the feedwater are large or small in quantity.
In some cases feedwater supply needs to be only filtered without the
need for any other external treatment. Internal treatment can constitute
the sole treatment when boilers operate at low pressure, large amounts
of condensed steam are used for feedwater, or the raw water available is
of good quality. However, in moderate or high-pressure boilers,
External treatment of the make-up water is mandatory for good results.
With today’s boilers having higher heat transfer rates, even a small
deposit can cause tube failure or wasted fuel.
Internal water treatment program
The purpose of an internal water treatment program is:
- To react with incoming feedwater hardness and prevent it from precipitating on the boiler metal as scale
- To condition any suspended matter such as hardness sludge in the boiler and make it nonadherent to the boiler metal
- To provide antifoam protection to permit a reasonable concentration
of dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water without foaming
- To eliminate oxygen from the feedwater
- To provide enough alkalinity to prevent boiler corrosion
- To prevent scaling and protect against corrosion in the steam-condensate systems.
Chemicals used in internal treatment
Phosphates used to be the main conditioning chemical, but nowadays
chelate and polymer type chemicals are mostly used. These new chemicals
have the advantage over phosphates of maintaining scale-free metal
surfaces. All internal treatment chemicals, whether phosphate, chelate,
or polymer, condition the calcium and magnesium in the feedwater.
Chelates and polymers form soluble complexes with the hardness, whereas
phosphates precipitate the hardness. Sludge conditioners are also used
to aid in the conditioning of precipitated hardness. These conditioners
are selected so that they are both effective and stable at boiler
operating pressures. Synthetic organic materials are used as antifoam
agents. For feedwater oxygen scavenging, chemicals used are sodium
sulfite and hydrazine. Condensate system protection can be accomplished
by the use of volatile amines or volatile filming inhibitors. A
reputable company supplying treatment chemicals should be consulted.
These companies supply the chemical formulations under their brand names
and they provide details on the dosage and methods.
Internal treatment for hardness
At boiler operating temperatures, calcium carbonate in the feedwater
breaks down to form calcium carbonate. Since it is relatively insoluble,
it precipitates. Sodium carbonate in the water partially breaks down to
sodium hydroxide and carbon dioxide. Internal treatment with phosphates
transforms calcium bicarbonate to calcium phosphate and sodium
carbonate. In the presence of hydroxide alkalinity, magnesium
bicarbonate precipitates as magnesium hydroxide or reacts with silica to
form magnesium silicate. These minerals are precipitated from solution
in form of sludge, which must be conditioned to prevent its sticking to
the boiler metal. The conditioned sludge is then removed from the boiler
by blowdown. When chelate is used for internal treatment, it reacts
with calcium and magnesium salts to form soluble complexes. These
complexes are in the form of dissolved solids and are removed by
blowdown. Dispersant polymers used in conjunction with chelate produces
reaction products, which are better conditioned. They do not precipitate
and are more easily removed by blowdown. Use of polymers further aids
in conditioning any suspended solid contamination that may have entered
with the boiler feed water.
Internal treatment for sulfates
The boiler temperature makes the calcium and magnesium sulfates in
the feedwater insoluble. With phosphates used as internal treatment,
calcium reacts with the phosphate producing hydroxyapatite, which is
much easier to condition than calcium sulfate. With chelates or polymer
used as internal treatment, calcium and magnesium react with these
materials producing soluble complexes that are easily removed by
blowdown.
Internal treatment for silica
If silica is present in the feedwater, it tends to precipitate
directly as scale at hot spots on the boiler metal and or combines with
calcium forming a hard calcium silicate scale. In the internal treatment
for silica, the boiler water alkalinity has to be kept high enough to
hold the silica in solution. Magnesium, present in most waters,
precipitates some of the silica as sludge. Special organic materials or
synthetic polymers are used to condition magnesium silicate from
adhering to the boiler metal.
Internal treatment for sludge conditioning
Internal treatment for hardness results in insoluble precipitates in
the boiler that form sludge. In addition, insoluble corrosion
particulate (metal oxides) are transported to the boiler by condensate
returns and from preboiler feedwater corrosion resulting in suspended
solids. Suspended solids, carried to the boiler by feedwater or
subsequently formed within the boiler, adversely affect both boiler
cleanliness and steam purity. These solids have varying tendency to
deposit on the boiler metal. Conditioners prevent these solids from
depositing and forming corrosive or insulating boiler scale. Some of the
principal types of sludge conditioners are:
- Starches – effective on high silica feedwater and where oil contamination is a problem
- Lignins – effective on phosphate type sludge
- Tannins – fairly effective on high hardness feedwater
- Synthetic polymers – Highly effective sludge conditioners for all types of sludges
Internal treatment advantages
Internal treatment is basically simple and with the help of a
qualified consultant an effective program is easily established. Scales
or deposits, corrosion and carryover are minimized thereby improving
efficiency and reducing energy consumption, preventing tube failures and
unscheduled costly repairs, and reducing deposits, corrosion and
contamination in the downstream equipments or processes.
Internal treatment – chemical dosage
Chemical dosages are based on the amount and type of impurities in
the feedwater. For example, the amount of boiler treatment chemicals
depends on the feedwater hardness; the amount of sodium sulfite depends
on the amount of dissolved oxygen in the feedwater. In addition, a
certain amount of extra chemicals are added to provide a residual in the
boiler water. Feeding methods include chemical solution tanks and
proportioning pumps with the chemicals being added directly before
entrance to the boiler. Ortho type phosphates are fed through a separate
line directly into the steam drum of the boiler. Chemicals used to
prevent condensate system corrosion can be fed directly to the
feedwater, boiler, or steam, depending on the type of chemical used.
Continuous feeding is the preferred method but intermittent feeding may
also suffice in some cases.
Tests for treatment control
Boiler water control tests include tests for alkalinity, phosphate,
polymer, hydrazine, chelate, sulfite, pH, organic colour, and total
dissolved solids. If sulfite test shows adequate residual is present
(this test is not valid with use of uncatalyzed sodium sulfite), the
feedwater oxygen has been removed. Testing for organic colour gives an
indication for both sludge conditioner and antifoam level. Chelate
testing can be either for total chelate or residual chelate.
Tests for checking contaminants
These tests depend on what type of contaminants is suspected. Common
checks are for iron, oil and silica. Total iron test serves as a check
on corrosion products brought back by the condensate return. This test
is also used to check iron present in the make up water. Laboratory
facility is required for oil test but visual inspection can reveal gross
contamination. Periodic checking should be done to detect unusual
silica contamination and to determine when blowdown is needed.
Blowdown
Blowdown is the discharge of boiler water containing concentrated
suspended and dissolved feedwater solids. As the blowdown water is
replaced with lower solids feedwater, the boiler water is diluted. With
proper regulation of blowdown, the amount of solids in the boiler water
can be controlled. The amount of blowdown needed depends on how much
feedwater impurities a given boiler can tolerate. For example if a
particular boiler can tolerate 500 ppm maximum dissolved solids, and the
feedwater contains 50 ppm, it can be concentrated only about 10 times.
This means that for every 100 pounds of water fed to the boiler about 10
pounds of boiler water must be blown down to keep the dissolved solids
from exceeding 500 ppm. Total dissolved solids is not the only limiting
factor in determining blowdown, other considerations include suspended
solids, alkalinity, silica and iron.
Test for regulating blowdown
A practical method for regulating blowdown is by routinely checking
the electrical conductivity of the water with a simple measuring
instrument. Electrical conductivity gives an estimate of the dissolved
solids in the boiler water. By checking both the feedwater and boiler
water dissolved solids, one can easily calculate the number of feedwater
concentrations.
Continuous and intermittent blowdown
Boilers incorporate blowdown valves at low points where sludge is
likely to collect. Opening these blowdown valves for short intervals
provides intermittent removal of sludge and concentrated solids. In
addition, some boilers also have a blowdown off take located slightly
below the water level in the steam release area. A small amount of water
is continuously removed through these connections. The use of
continuous blowdown in addition to manual (bottom) blow down maintains
the residuals at more consistent levels in the boiler water. Continuous
blowdown also minimizes the amount of bottom blowdown required, with
resultant savings in fuel and chemicals. Continuous blowdown helps
minimize upsets in boiler water circulation and operation.
Corrosion in steam condensate system
Corrosion in steam condensate system is caused by carbon dioxide and
oxygen carried into the system by steam. Dissolved carbon dioxide in
condensed steam forms corrosive carbonic acid. If oxygen is present with
carbon dioxide, the corrosion rate is much higher, and is likely to
produce localized pitting. Ammonia, in combination with oxygen, attacks
copper alloys.
Prevention of steam condensate corrosion
Generally corrosion prevention is by removing oxygen from the
feedwater by mechanical (deaerator) means, by use of suitable chemicals,
and pretreatment of the make-up water to minimize potential carbon
dioxide formation in the boiler. Further boiler water treatment is done
by use of volatile amines to neutralize carbon dioxide or volatile
filming inhibitors to form a barrier between the metal and the corrosive
condensate. Mechanical conditions need to checked and corrected, like
poor trapping and draining of lines. Deaerator can reduce oxygen to as
low as 0.007 ppm. Since very small amounts of oxygen can cause boiler
and steam condensate system corrosion, chemical treatment is needed to
assure complete oxygen removal. Sodium sulfite and hydrazine chemicals
are commonly used for this purpose. Catalysts are sometimes also used to
speed up the reaction.
Prevention of deposits and water corrosion in feedwater systems
Deposits in feedwater systems are usually caused by hardness
precipitation as the water goes through feedwater heaters or as the feed
lines enter the boilers. Deposits can also occur from premature
reaction of treatment chemicals with hardness in the feedwater.
Prevention is by means of the use of stabilizing chemicals fed
continuously to retard hardness precipitation. The corrosion of
feedwater system is due to the low alkalinity or dissolved oxygen in the
water. Raising the pH of the water with caustic or amines and feed of
catalyzed sodium sulfite minimizes this problem.
Prevention of caustic embrittlement
Organic materials like lignins applied to the boiler water are
effective in preventing caustic embrittlement of boiler metal. Sodium
nitrate inhibits embrittlement at low concentrations ranging to 0.4 part
of sodium nitrate per part of caustic soda in boiler water. Maintaining
an organic content of 50-100 ppm and a sodium nitrate content of 50 ppm
is a commonly used embrittlement prevention program.
Oil contamination, problem & remedies
Main problems caused by oil in the boiler water are:
- Oil can coat metal surfaces, cut down heat transfer, and produce metal overheating
- Oil can cause sludge to become sticky and adhere to heat transfer surfaces
- Oil can produce foaming and boiler water carryover
Oil contamination should be completely eliminated whenever possible.
Organic chemicals help counteract the effects of small amounts of oil
contamination, but not of gross contamination. When sudden boiler water
oil contamination is experienced, normal procedure is to blow down
heavily to remove oil and to check for the source of contamination. In
case of severe contamination, the boiler needs to be taken off the line
and cleaned out to remove the oil from the boiler surfaces. When oil
contamination is continuous and unavoidable, some of the methods used
are:
- Free oil can be reduced by passing the water through absorbent cartridge filters
- Emulsified oil is broken down by chemical additives and filtered
- Special filters are used with aids like diatomaceous earth
- Flotation method
- Coalescence method
Care of out-of-service boilers
Much of the corrosion damage to boilers and condensate equipment
results during idle periods due to corrosion caused by the exposure of
wet metal to oxygen in the air. Wet boiler lay-up method is of storing
boilers full of water. Extra chemicals (alkalinity, oxygen scavenger,
and a dispersant) are added to the boiler water and the water level is
raised in the idle boiler to eliminate air spaces. Nitrogen gas can also
be used on airtight boilers to maintain positive pressure on the
boiler, thereby preventing oxygen from entering. Dry boiler lay-up
method is usually for longer boiler outages. The boiler is drained,
cleaned and dried out. Material, such as hydrated lime or silica gel,
which absorb moisture, is placed in trays inside the boiler. The boiler
is then sealed to prevent air from entering. Periodic replacement of the
drying chemical is required during long storage periods.
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