-
-
Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada Dated :Jul 06, 2016 Past 24 Hours Weather Data Maximum Temp(oC) (Recorded. on 06/07/16) 34.0 Departure from Normal(oC) 1 Minimum Temp (oC) (Recorded. on 06/07/16) 28.3 Departure from Normal(oC) 2 24 Hours Rainfall (mm) (Recorded from 0830 hrs IST
of yesterday to 0830 hrs IST of today)NIL Todays Sunset (IST) 18:39 Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:33 Moonset (IST) 20:16 Moonrise (IST) 07:11 7 Day's Forecast Date Min Temp Max Temp Weather 06-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers 07-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers 08-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers 09-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers 10-Jul 27.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers 11-Jul 27.0 32.0 Generally cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm 12-Jul 27.0 32.0 Generally cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm
0Add a comment
-
Presentation By Secretary (Fertilizers)
National Conference on Agriculture for Rabi 2014-15
Sales of P&K Fertilizers (DAP,MOP & NPK)
Major Concerns In Indian Agriculture- Depleting soil organic matter
- Imbalance in fertilizer use
- Emerging multi-nutrient deficiencies
- Declining nutrient use efficiency
- Declining crop response ratio
- Negative soil nutrient balance
Deteriorating balance in NPKDeteriorating balance in NPK
The N-P-K ratio worsened acutely in certain statesNPK Ratios across states in India for 2013EASTSOUTHBihar12.3 : 3.6 : 1Andhra Pradesh7.1 : 2.8 : 1Orissa6.2 : 2.4 : 1Karnataka3.6 : 1.6 : 1West Bengal2.9 : 1.6 : 1Tamil Nadu3.9 : 1.5 : 1NORTHWESTHaryana61.4 : 18.7 : 1Gujarat13.2 : 3.4 : 1Punjab61.7 : 19.2 : 1Maharashtra3.5 : 1.8 : 1Uttar Pradesh25.2 : 8.8 : 1Rajasthan44.9 : 16.5 : 1Nutrient
Efficiency
Cause of low efficiency
Nitrogen
30-50 %
Immobilization, volatilization, denitrification, Leaching
Phosphorus
15-20%
Fixation in soils Al – P, Fe – P, Ca – P
Potassium
70-80%
Fixation in clay - lattices
Sulphur
8-10%
Immobilization, Leaching with water
Micro nutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, B)
1-2%
Fixation in soils
Reasons:
The loss of N through leaching and volatilization creates pollution and has environmental implications.
Major Concerns In Indian AgricultureDeclining nutrient use efficiencyMajor Concerns In Indian AgricultureReasons:
- Inadequate and imbalanced fertiliser use
- Increasing multi-nutrient deficiency
- Lack of farmers awareness about balanced plant nutrition
- Poor crop management (Excess fertiliser dose not be the substitute of poor management)
Declining Fertilizer Response - Irrigated AreasSoil Organic Carbon Map
- Organic carbon status in all the major states is low
- West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka are the major states where organic carbon is low
Over All India Organic Carbon Status67% of Indian Soil is having lower organic CarbonSource: Coromandel’s Internal Finding
OC test done - 3.4 lac samples
Suggested Medium term Strategy- Use of optimal dose based on soil health status.
- Promotion of Neem-Coated Urea.
- Promotion of Micronutrients.
- Promotion of Organic Fertilizers.
- Promotion of Water Soluble Fertilizer under NHM.
Operational Issues- Quality Control & Enforcement of FCO mandated standards.
- Strengthening of the enforcement measures to prevent hoarding/ black marketing/ Smuggling /diversion of subsidised fertilizers to non-agriculture use.
- Operationalisation of mFMS at the retailer level.
- Close Coordination with Suppliers and timely placement of Indent with Railways.
- Collaboration in the Pilot Project for tracking & tracing of fertilizers sales.
0Add a comment
-
-
-
Jul5
AN E Mail sent by our railway minister as he was one of the Chief guest of symposium in 2007 -ICSSR-IGIDR AND RUSSIAN ACADEMY OFSCIENCES
With best regards,Dr. AMAR NATH GIRI
“Join the race to make the world a better place”.(2016)
M.Sc. -Environmental Science,Ph.D -Environmental Science law & DIPLOMA AS - P.G.D.E.P.L,CES, DCA,
EX IIM LUCKNOW FELLOW, EX RESEARCH SCIENTIST
IGIDR-MUMBAI
9912511918
amarnathgiri@nagarjunagroup.com
http://www.nagarjunagroup.com
http://www.nagarjunafertilizers.com
http://www.gprofonline.com/members/Default.aspx
http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2013/10/curriculum-vitae-of-dr-amar-nath-giri.html?q=BIO+DATA
http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2012/05/nagarjuna-management-services.html
---------- Forwarded message ----------
From: <sureshprabhu@irctc.co.in>
Date: Tue, Jul 5, 2016 at 3:17 PM
Subject: Ministry of Railways - Achievements & Initiatives
To: goswami248@gmail.com
Dear Friends,
It is our Honorable Prime Minister's firm belief that Indian Railway has the potential to become
the backbone of India's progress and economic development. This is the vision we all are
working for at Indian Railways with you as our partner.
18 months ago, when I took over the reigns of this great organization called Indian Railways, I
was faced with many challenges. I had the option of making small incremental changes or go
beyond business as usual. I chose the latter
Bringing in systemic changes was the need of the hour. It was important to change the perception
of Indian Railways from a slow moving behemoth to a responsive modern organization. It is
satisfying for me to note that we have made some progress. A lot is still to be done.
Our Prime Minister has asserted many times that our Government's priority is the commonest of
common man of the country and it is with this in mind, we worked on improving the travel
experience for our people. We launched a host of initiatives aimed at this.
An E-book on two year achievements of Indian Railways:
htt p://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/ directorate/prd/downloads/Two_ Years_
Performance_Report.pdf
Some of the important achievements are:
-
Commissioned record 2828 kms of broad gauge lines which is 85% higher than 2009-14
average annual commissioning. 7.7 kms lines commissioned per day against 2009-14
average of 4.3 kms -
Capital expenditure in 2015-16 was about Rs. 94,000 Cr which is almost double
the average annual capital expenditure over the previous five-year period of 2009-14 -
Electrification of 1730 kms done in the last year is a huge jump over 2009-14 annual
average of 1184 kms -
A responsive 24x7 complaint resolution mechanism employed through the use of social
media -
Cleanliness: Swachh Rail, Swachh Bharat campaign, Clean my Coach Service launched,
third party cleanliness audits conducted for stations -
E-catering, E-wheelchair, E-bedroll facilities launched to ensure seamless availability and
access to these facilities -
Ticketing: IRCTC capacity increased, Automatic ticket vending machines installed,
cancellation of PRS tickets through cell phone launched, Vikalp scheme launched -
Speed: India's first semi high speed train Gatimaan Express launched, trial run of Talgo
coaches underway -
N-E Connectivity: Barak Valley of Assam, Agartala, Mizoram and Manipur connected to
broad gauge - High speed Wi-Fi launched at various stations with a target of 400 stations by 2018
-
Environment: A provision of 1% of total project cost made in all future projects to spend
on environment protection measures, major thrust on solar and wind energy provided,
traditional lights replaced by environment friendly LED lights -
100% E-tendering implemented resulting in transparent and accountable procurement
process
While I continue my journey on this noble mission of `Transforming India' through -
THANKS TO OUR SITE IN CHARGE SHRI GVS ANAND SIR, SHRI V. SHYAM SUNDER SIR , SHRI JKP SIR AND QUALITY AND LAB ASSOCIATES FOR EXTRAORDINARY STEPS .
As CSR Activities Soil analysis has been taken by NFCL in INDIA
As CSR Activities Soil analysis has been taken by NFCL in INDIAA brief about soil, soil analysis methodologies, Application & critical analysis & Fertilizer Recommendation for Farmers soil.Dr. Amar Nath Giri (EHSQ)Soil may be defined as a thin layer of earth crust which serves as a natural medium for the growth of the plants. Soil consists of organic matter Soil organisms - Micro flora and Micro fauna. Soil water Soil air Inorganic matter - Macro nutrients and Micro nutrients Organic Matter the plants and animals grown in weathered material and the organic residues left behind decay with time and become an integral part of the soil. The main source of soil organic matter is plant tissue. Animals are subsidiary source of soil organic matter. The micro flora like bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes, and micro fauna like protozoa, nematodes, macro fauna like earthworms, ants etc. play an important role in formation of organic matter. The organic matter influences the soil in respect to colour, physical properties, supply of available nutrients and adsorptive capacity. IN NFCL we are considering the significant parameters which is useful to analysis maximum quality of the soil which used to be beneficial to provide real solution for healthy Crop & fruits , cereals, vegetables.Objective of Soil Testing:Appropriate fertilizer dozes used to be recommended on the basis of soil testing such as In Normal soil (pH- 6 to 6.5) all Nitrogenous fertilizer, Super phosphate, Ammonium phosphate etc. can be used. Similarly in the soil having less than 6.00 pH value, Calcium ammonium nitrate, Sodium nitrate, phosphetic fertilizer. Super phosphate, Murate of potash etc can be applied. In the soils having more than 8.5 Ph value, Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Amonium chloride, Super phosphate, Amonium phosphate, Murate of potash etc are recommended. The water logged soils can be applied Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Super phosphate, Ammonium phosphate, Ammonium chloride etc.
To identify the quantity of organic carbon in the soil is one of the major objectives of soil testing, because growth of crop & availability of nutrients are based on organic carbon. The ratio of organic carbon & nitrogen is 10-12:1. The propagation of useful bacteria also depends on it.Soil testing recommends the ingradiant required reclaiming the acidic soil or saline soils etc. The deficiency of micro element like Znic, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, Iron, Cobalt, Silicon, Manganese & Chlorine etc also adversely affect the crop condition & ultimately the production.In NFCL soil testing laboratories pH, Ec, Organic carbon (as an index of available nitrogen), available phosphorus, and available potassium are estimated. If necessary micro nutrients like Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and B are estimated, Ca, Mg and S are also estimated if any deficiency symptoms are observed on crops. pH (potential of hydrogeni) is estimated by a glass electrode pH meter in 1:2 soil water suspensions. Electrical conductivity is measured by a conductivity meter in 1:2 soil water suspensions. Available nitrogen is estimated by Subbaiah and Asija (1956) method (distillation of soil with alkaline potassium permanganate solution). But in most of the laboratories organic carbon is taken as an index of available nitrogen content of soil assuming C: N ratio is 10. Organic carbon is determined by chromic acid oxidation by rapid titration (Walkley and Black (1934) rapid titration). Phosphorous is determined by Olsen's (1954) using 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate as extracting and phosphorus is analyzed calorimetrically. Neutral normal ammonium acetate solution is the most widely used extractant for available potassium which is analyzed by flame photometer. Micro nutrients are extracted by DTPA and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer .When land is brought under cropping, grain or fruit and sometimes the entire plants are removed (harvested) from the land. Hence, the soil losses a considerable amount of its nutrients (up take by plants). If cropping is continued over a period of time, without nutrients being restored to the soil, its fertility will be reduced and crop yields will decline. Apart from removal by crops, nutrients may also be lost from the soil through leaching and erosion. Even to maintain soil productivity at the existing levels, it is necessary to restore to the soil, the nutrients removed by crops as also those lost through leaching and erosion.Continued maintenance of a high level of soil fertility is an indispensable for profitable land use and sustained agricultural production. From time to time the inherent fertility of soil has to be evaluated.A brief About Indian Soil and its qualification:Classification of Indian SoilsThere are 8 major group of soils in India which are furnished belowRed Soils: Red colour is due to various oxides of iron. They are poor in N, P, K and with pH varying 7 to 7.5. These soils are light textured with porous structure. Lime is absent with low soluble salts. Red soils occur extensively in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Parts of kerala, Maharastra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and West Bengal. Most of the red soils have been classified in the order ' Alfisols'.Lateritic SoilsSeen in high rainfall areas, under high rainfall conditions silica is released and leached down wards and the upper horizons of soils become rich in oxides of iron and aluminium. The texture is light with free drainage structure. Clay is predominant and lime is deficient. pH 5 to 6 with low in base exchange capacity, contained more humus and are well drained. They are distributed in summits of hills of Daccan karnataka, Kerala, Madhyapradesh, Ghat regions of Orissa, Andhra pradesh, Maharastra and also in West Bengal, Tamilnadu and Assam. Most of the laterite soils have bee classified in the order ' ultisols' and a few under ' oxisols'.Alluvial SoilsThese are the most important soils from the agriculture point of view. The soils are sandy loam to clay loam with light grey colour to dark colour, structure is loose and more fertile. But the soils are low in NPK and humus. They are well supplied with lime; base exchange capacity is low, pH ranges from 7 to 8. These soils are distributed in Indo-Gangetic plains, Brahmaputra valley and all most all states of North and South. Most of the alluvial soils have been classified in the orders ' Entisols', ' Inceptisols' and ' Alfisols'.Black SoilsThis is well known group of soils characterised by dark grey to black colour with high clay content. They are neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction. Deep cracks develop during summer, the depth of the soil varies from less than a meter to several meters. Poor free drainage results in the soils, base exchange is high with high pH and rich in lime and potash. Major black soils are found in Maharastra, Madhyapradesh, Gujarat and Tamilnadu. Cotton is most favorable crop to be grown in these soils. These soils are classified in the order 'Entisols', ' Inceptisols' and ' vertisols'.Forest SoilsThis group of soils occur in Himalayas. Soils are dark brown with more sub-soil humus content. They are more acidic.Desert SoilsThese soils are mostly sandy to loamy fine sand with brown to yellow brown colour, contains large amounts of soluble salts and lime with pH ranging 8.0 to 8.5. Nitrogen content is very low. The presence of Phosphate and Nitrate make the desert soils fertile and productive under water supply. They are distributed in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan. They are classified in the order ' Aridisols' and ' Entisols'.Peaty and Marshy SoilsThese soils occur in humid regions with accumulation of high organic matter. During monsoons the soils get submerged in water and the water receipts after the monsoon during which period rice is cultivated. Soils are black clay and highly acidic with pH of 3.5. Free alluminium and ferrous sulphate are present. The depressions formed by dried rivers and lakes in alluvial and coastal areas some times give rise to water logged soils and such soils are blue in colour due to the presence of ferrous iron. Peaty soils are found more in Kerala and marshy soils are found more in coastal tracks of Orissa, West Bengal and South - East coast of Tamilnadu.Saline - Sodic SoilsSaline soils contain excess of natural soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulphates which affects plant growth. Sodic or alkali soils contain high exchangeable sodium salts.Both kinds of salt effected soils occur in different parts of India like Uttarpradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Maharastra, Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Rajastan and Andhra pradesh. These soils are classified under ' Aridisols', ' Entisols' and ' Vertisols'.Classification of Soils In Andhra Pradesh There are five important types of soils in Andhra Pradesh. They are Red soils , Black soils, Alluvial soils , Laterite soils . Saline soils.The characters of these soils are same as given under Indian soils.Soil degradationSoil degradation involves a number of physical, chemical and biological processes, which may act singly or jointly. In Andhra Pradesh state, soil erosion by water due to intense storms and soils with poor surface structural stability are the most obvious forms of land degradation. The other forms of degradation seen in our state are salinisation, alkalisation, laterisation and inundation of the total area of 18.52 million hectares in 14 districts surveyed so far, 19.6% suffers from soil degradation of one type or the other.Current records indicate that 1,14,000 hectares of land are affected by water logging and salinity in Guntur and Prakasam districts under the Nagarjuna sagar Right Bank Canal Command. More than 60,000 hectares are alkaline in the districts of Anantapur, Kurnool, Medak, Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar.Salt affliction in soils may occur as a result of a variety of causes, namely, capillary rise from subsoil containing salt, indiscriminate use of canal water for irrigation, weathering of rocks in salts transported by rivers from upstream regions to plains, salt impregnated sands transported by coastal winds, in-site decomposition of soil minerals and intrusion of sea water. The extent of saline and alkaline tracts in irrigated areas (under canal and tank or reservoir command areas) is about 5,30,000 hectares.
Response:Unfortunately, the response to the changes in soils leading to degradation has been painfully slow. Nonetheless, systematic watershed development and command area development programmes have earnestly attempted to set matters right. Some steps have also been taken to rationalise energy and water use through tariff structure. The present infrastructure of seven research stations in different agro climatic zones in the state by the Department of Agriculture helps in monitoring the changes in soil content but needs further strengthening by way of interlocking with Agricultural Universities, Non-governmental organizations , Fertilizer Industries Experts and Institutions.As industry & Nutrient solution provider in INDIA as Eco-efficient way for best plant growth, good soil health & maximum utilization of fertilizer by the plant and least environmental effects NFCL is day by day improving the Quality of UREA & other fertilizers and asking soil sample from farmers all over INDIA for analysis & best Soil recommendation provider.There are different methods for soil fertility evaluation as listed below: Soil Test Interpretation and Fertilizer RecommendationsFrom the results of analysis of soil samples sent by the farmer and information sheet supplied by him, soil test reports are prepared in the laboratories. Copies of these reports are sent to the concerned farmer.Soil test reports are usually in three main parts. First part indicates results of analyses of the soil sample. Most laboratories give actual analyses as well as the ratings. Second part is fertilizer recommendations for the crop based on soil analyses, history of the field like cropping pattern, manures and fertilizers earlier applied, etc. This part indicates quantities of nitrogen (N), Phosphate ( P205), Potash(K20), Zinc (Where facilities exist ) and also of lime or gypsum to be applied per hectare.The third part of the report usually indicates time and methods of fertilizer application and other practices required to make the fertilizer use more efficient.During the relatively short period that soil testing service has been in operation in this country a large number of soil samples have been analyzed in various laboratories. Based on the results of these analyses , soil fertility maps have been prepared indicating the nutrient status of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and zinc in different parts of the country. It must however, be noted that this is only a broad classification , since it is based on limited soil sample analysis.Soil CompositionSoil Organisms: Soil is the habitat for enormous number of living organisms. Some of these organisms are visible to naked eye where as others can be seen by microscope only. Roots of higher plants are considered as soil macro flora while bacteria, fungi, algae and actinomycetes are considered as soil micro flora. Protozoa and nematodes are the significant soil micro fauna where as the earthworms, moles and ants constitutes soil macro fauna.Soil Water: In order to function as a medium for plant growth, soil must contain some water. The main functions of water in the soil are as follows:Promotes many physical and biological activities of soil.Acts as a solvent and carrier of nutrients.As a nutrient itself.Acts as an agent in photosynthesis process.Maintains turgidity of plants.Acts as an agent in weathering of rocks and minerals.Soil AirOxygen is essential for all biological reactions occurring in soil. Its requirement is met from the soil air. The gaseous phase of soil acts as a path way for intake of oxygen which is absorbed by soil micro organisms, plant roots and for escape of carbondioxide produced by the plants.This two way process is called soil aeration. Soil aeration become critical for the plant growth when water content is high, because water replaces soil air.Soil Inorganic MatterThe inorganic constituents of the soil comprises carbonates, soluble salts, free oxides of iron, aluminium and silica in addition to some amorphous silicates. The inorganic constituents form the bulk of the solid phase of the soil. Soils having more than 20% of the organic constituents are designated as organic soils.Soil pHThe negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H +) concentration is called pH. Soil pH may be acidic, basic or neutral.Soil FertilitySoil fertility deals with the nutrient status or ability of soil to supply nutrients for plant growth under favorable environmental conditions such as light, temperature and physical conditions of soil.Soil ProductivitySoil productivity is defined as the capability of the soil for producing a specified quantity of plant produce per unit area and the ability to produce sequence of crops under a specified system of management.Problem SoilsThe soils which owe characteristics that they can not be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils.Acid SoilsThose soils with pH less than 6.5 and which respond to liming may be considered as acid soils.Reasons for Acidity Humus decomposition results in release of large amounts of acids. There by lowering the pH.Rainfall: In areas with more than 100 cm rainfall associated with high R.H., Ca, Mg is dissolved in water and leached out due to this base saturation of soil decreases. Application of elemental sulphur under goes reactions resulting in formation of H2SO4.Continuous application of acid forming fertilizers like ammonium sulphates or ammonium chlorides results in depletion of Ca by CEC (cation exchange capacity) phenomenon. Parent Material : Generally rocks are considered as acidic, which contain large amount of silica (Si O2) when this combined with water, acidity increases.Characteristics : PH is less than 6.5This soils are open textured with high massive Structure. Low in Ca, Mg with negligible amount of soluble salts. These soils appear as brown or reddish brown, sandy loams or sands. Injury to CropsDirect AffectsPlant root system does not grow normally due to toxic hydrogen ions. Permeability of plant membranes are adversely affected due to soil acidity. Enzyme actions may be altered, since they are sensitive to PH changes.Indirect AffectsDeficiency of Ca and Mg occur by leaching. Al, Mn and Fe available in toxic amounts. All the micro nutrients except molybdenum are available. So 'Mo' deficiency has been identified in leguminous crops. Phosphorous gets immobilized and its availability is reduced. Actvity of Micro Organisms Most of the activities of beneficial organisms like Azatobacter and nodule forming bacteria of legumes are adversely effected as acidity increases. Crops Suitable ForCultivation in Acid SoilsAmeliorationLime as reclaiming agent : Lime is added to neutralize acidity and to increase the PH, so that the availability of nutrients will be increased. Basic slag obtained from Iron and steel industry can be substituted for lime. It contains about 48-54% of CaO and 3-4% MgO. Ammonium sulphate and Ammonium chloride should not be applied to acid soils but urea can be applied. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) is suitable to acid soils. Any citrate soluble phosphate fertilizer is good source of phosphorous for acid soils. Eg. Dicalcium phosphate (DCP), Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) Potassium sulphate is a suitable source of 'K' for acid soils. But MOP is better than K2So4 because Cl of MOP replaces -OH ions, their by release of -OH ions tends to increase the PH.Alkaline Soils :Alkali soils are formed due to concentration of exchangeable sodium and high pH. Because of high alkalinity resulting from sodium carbonate the surface soil is discoloured to black; hence the term black alkali is used.Reasons for AlkalinityThe excessive irrigation of uplands containing Na salts results in the accumulation of salts in the valleys. In arid and semi arid areas salt formed during weathering are not fully leached.In coastal areas if the soil contains carbonates the ingression of sea water leads to the formation of alkali soils due to formation of sodium carbonates. Irrigated soils with poor drainage.CharacteristicsInjury to CropsHigh exchangeable sodium decreases the availability of calcium, magnesium to plants. Dispersion of soil particles due to high exchangeable 'Na' leads to poor physical condition of soil, low permeability to water and air, tends to be sticky when wet and becomes hard on drying.Toxicity due to excess hydroxyl and carbonate ions. Growth of plant gets affected mainly due to nutritional imbalance. Restricted root system and delay in flowering in sensitive varieties.Typical leaf burn in annuals and woody plants due to excess of chloride and sodium.Bronzing of leaves in citrus. It effects the solubility of zinc( Zn). Crops Suitable for Cultivation in Alkaline Soils Barley, Sugarbeet, Cotton, Sugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram, Greengram, Sunflower, Linseed, Sesame, Bajra, Sorghum, Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bitterguard. Beetroot, Guava, Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.AmeliorationThe process of amelioration consists of two steps. To convert exchangeable sodium into water soluble form. To leach out the soluble sodium from the field. Amendments used for reclamation of Alkali soils.GypsumIt is slightly soluble in water. So it should be applied well in advance.RequrementFor every 1 m.e of exchangeable Na per 100 gm of soil, 1.7 tonns of Gypsum/ acre is to be added.ApplicationSaline SoilsThe saline soils contains toxic concentration of soluble salts in the root zone. Soluble salts consists of chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium. Because of the white encrustation formed due to salts, the saline soils are also called white alkali soils.Reasons For SalinityIn arid and semi arid areas salts formed during weathering are not fully leached. During the periods of higher rainfall the soluble salts are leached from the more permeable high laying areas to low laying areas and where ever the drainage is restricted, salts accumulate on the soil surface, as water evaporatesThe excessive irrigation of uplands containing salts results in the accumulation of salts in the valleys. In areas having salt layer at lower depths in the profile, seasonal irrigation may favour the upward movement of salts. Salinity is also caused if the soils are irrigated with saline water. In coastal areas the ingress of sea water induces salinity in the soil.CharacteristicsInjury to CropsHigh osmotic pressure decreases the water availability to plants hence retardation of growth rate. As a result of retarded growth rate, leaves and stems of affected plants are stunted. Development of thicker layer of surface wax imparts bluish green tinge on leaves Due to high EC germination % of seeds is reduced.Crops Suitable For Cultivation In Saline SoilsBarley, Sugarbeet, Cotton, Sugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram, Greengram, Sunflower, Linseed, Sesame, Bajra, Sorghum, Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bitterguard. Beetroot, Guava, Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.AmeliorationThe salts are to be leached below the root zone and not allowed to come up. However this practice is some what difficult in deep and fine textured soils containing more salts in the lower layers. Under these conditions a provision of some kind of sub-surface drains becomes important.The required area is to be made into smaller plots and each plot should be bounded to hold irrigation water.Separate irrigation and drainage channels are to be provided for each plot. Plots are to be flooded with good quality water upto 15 - 20 cms and puddled. Thus, soluble salts will be dissolved in the water. The excess water with dissolved salts is to be removed into the drainage channels.Flooding and drainage are to be repeated 5 or 6 times till the soluble salts are leached from the soil to a safer limit. Green manure crops like Daincha can be grown upto flowering stage and incorporated into the soil. Paddy straw can also be used.Super phosphate, Ammonium sulphate or Urea can be applied in the last puddle. MOP and Ammonium chlorides should not be used.Scrape the salt layer on the surface of the soil with spade.Grow salt tolerant crops like sugar beet, tomato, beet root, barley etcBefore sowing, the seeds are to be treated by soaking the seeds in 0.1% salt solution for 2 to 3 hours.If the requirement is 3 tonnes/ acre- apply in one dose.If the requirement is 3 to 5 tonnes/acre- apply in 2 split doses.If the requirement is 5 or more tonnes/ acre - apply in 3 split doses.Use of Pyrites (Fe S2)Sulphur present in pyrites causes decrease in pH of soil due to formation of H2SO4.H2So4 + Ca Co3 -- Ca S04 Ca So4 + Na --- Na So4 + Ca ( leachable)Application of sulphur. Application of molasses. Drainage channels must be arranged around the field. Growing the green manure crops and incorporate in the field.Objectives of Soil Testing - The objectives of soil testing area as follows:To estimate the available nutrient status, reaction (acidic/alkaline) of a soil. To evaluate the fertility status of soils of a country or a state or a district.By soil test summaries the fertility status i.e., available nitrogen status or available phosphorous status or available potassium status expressed as HIGH, MEDIUM or LOW. Delineating areas of nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) sufficiency or areas of nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) deficiency, Determining nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) requirement for the deficient areas etc. 3. to prepare a basis for fertilizer recommendation, lime recommendation or gypsum recommendation.The main purpose of soil testing is to evaluate the fertility status of the soil. It provides a basis for fertilizer, lime and gypsum recommendation. Laboratory test is a means of making an inventory of the chemical conditions of soil and determining treatments, if any, are needed.This service is generally rendered free of cost Under Social Corporate Responsibility. Attachments –Annexure 1. In the soil testing laboratory, soil samples are analyzed for the following five individual soil properties: pH or soil reaction which indicates whether the soil is acidic, alkaline or normalTotal soluble salts which indicates whether the soil is saline or normal:Organic carbon (as a measures of available nitrogen)Available phosphorusAvailable potashFertilizer RecommendationAnalysis Procedure AnneXure -2Rating of Soil Test Results- On the basis of soil test results, the soils are grouped into different categories. The categories with respect to organic carbon, available PO, KO and N are a follows:CategoriesOrganic Carbon (%)Available N (kg ha-)Available PO (kg ha-)Available KO (kg ha-)HighAbove 1.5Above 450Above 90Above 340Medium0.75-1.5280-45045-90150-340LowUp to 0.75Below 280Below 45Below 150The categories of soils with respect to soil pH are as follows:Soil pHCategoriesConductivityCategoriesBelow 5.5AcidBelow 1Normal5.5-6.5Slightly acid1 - 2Critical for germination6.5-7.5Neutral2 -.3Critical for growth of salt-sensitive crops7.5-8.5Tending to become alkaliAbove 3Injurious to most cropsAbove 8.5AlkaliRatings of soil test parametersQuadratic Response EquationY = A + b1SN + b2SN2 + b3 SP + b4SP2 + b5SK + B6SK2 + b7FN + b8FN2 + b9FP + b10FP2 + b11FK + b12FK2 + b13FNSN + b14FPSP + b15FKSKWhere,Y = Crop Yield (kg/ha)
A = Intercept
bi = Regression coefficients (kg/ha)
SN, SP, SK = Soil available N, P and K (kg/ha) respectively
FN, FP, FK = Fertiliser N, P and K (kg/ha) respectively
Mitcherlich-Bray equationAvailble NutrientHighLowMediumN(Nitrogen)63.10%25.57%11.33%P(Phosphorous)42.33%37.66%20.01%K(Potassium)12.93%36.65%50.42%Log (A-Y) = Log A - c1b - cxWhere,A = theoretical maximum yield
b = native soil nutrient
Y = yield obtained
x = added fertiliser
c1 = efficiency factor for soil nutrient
c = efficiency factor for added nutrientTarget Yield EquationFD = NR/CF *100*T -CS/CF*STVWhere,FD = Fertiliser N or P2O5 or K2O (kg/ha)
NR = Nutrient requirement of N or P2O5 or K2O (kg/t)
CF = Contribution from fertiliser N or P2O5 or K2O (%)
CS = Contribution from soil N or P2O5 or K2O (%)
STV = Soil test value of N or P X 2.29 or K X 1.21 (kg/ha)Conception of Soil TestingIn most of the soil testing laboratories in India, the soil pH, electrical conductivity, oxidizable organic carbon, available nitrogen, available phosphorous and available potassium are determined by chemical analytical methods within a short period. Hence, Soil testing is the rapid chemical analysis of a soil to estimate the available nutrient status, reaction and salinity of the soil.Method of Collection of Soil Samples - Collection for field cropsEquipmentsSpadePolythene bucket12 inches scaleBall point pen/Lead pencilA sheet of thick paperPolythene sheet (2ft x 2ft)ProcedureDetermine the soil unit (or plot).Make a traverse over the soil unit (or plot).Clean the site (with spade) from where soil sample is to be collected.Insert the spade into soil.Standing on opposite side, again insert the spade into soil.A lump of soil is removed.A pit of vee (V) shape is formed. Its depth should be 0-6" or 0-9" or 0-12". (i.e., depth of tillage).Take out the soil-slice (like bread-slice) of ½ inch thick from both the exposed surface of the pit from top to bottom. This slice is also termed furrow-slice. To collect the soil-slice spade may be used. Collect the soil samples in a polythene bucket.Collect furrow-slices from 8-10 or sometimes 20-30 sites. Select the sites at random in a zigzag (or criss-cross) manner. Distribute the sites throughout the entire soil unit (plot). In lieu of spade auger may be used. Do not take the prohibited samples and local problem soils.Furnish the following information in two sheets of thick paper with the sample. One sheet is folded and kept inside the bag. Another sheet is folded and attached with the bag.InformationsName and address of the farmer (or farm owner).Name of the block.Plot number or any other number that identifies the plot (or Soil unit).Soil texture (sandy/clay/loam).Availability of irrigation facilities.Availability of drainage system.Upland/Mediumland/Lowland.Depth of soil sample.Information of the previous crop.Name and variety of the crop.Dose of organic manure, if applied.Dose of fertilizers, if applied.Yield.Informations of the crop that will be grown.Name and variety of the crop.Season (pre Kharif/Kharif/rabi).Problem, if any.Date of sample collection.Signature of the farmer (or farm owner).Collection for plantation cropDig a well (pit) of 1.8 meter depth. (Depth may vary depending on root-depth).Collect the soil-slice of ½ inch thick from the exposed surface of pit at different depths as follows: 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120, 120-150 and 150-180 cm.Collection for local problem soils - Local problem soils are treated as separate soil units (plots). Hence, separate composite samples are collected from problem soils. The problem soil samples are not mixed with normal soils (i.e., non problem soils). Both surface soil and subsoil samples are collected.fThe categories of soils with respect to conductivity (total soluble salts) in mmhos/cm (dSm-1) followed are as follows:ParametersDetailspHmore than 8.3ECLess than 4 m.mhos/ cmESPMore than 15Chemistry of soil solutionDominated by carbonate and bicarbonate ions and high exchangeable sodium.Effect of electrolyte on soil particlesDispersion due to high amount of exchangeable sodiumAdverse effect on PlantAlkalinity of soil solutionGeographic distributionSemi arid and semi humid - areas.Diagnosis under field conditionPresence of dispersed soil surface. Columnar structures present in the sub-soilParametersDetailsPHLess than 8.3EcMore than 4.0 m.mhos/ cmESP (exchangeable sodium %)Less than 15Chemistry of soil solutionDominated by sulphate and chloride ions and low in exchangeable sodiumEffect of electrolytes on soil particlesFlocculation due to excess soluble salts.Main effect on plantHigh osmotic pressure of soil solutionGeographic distributionArid and semi arid regions.Diagnosis under field conditionPresence of white crustPresence of chloris barborata(weed)Patchy growth of plants.Analysis Procedure Annezure -2pH-(potentia of hydorgenii), EC, OC ( Organic carbon), Phosphorus As P2O5, Potassium as K2O.PotassiumAlong with N and P, potassium (K) is also of vital importance in crop production. Most soils contain relatively large amounts of total K (1 - 2%) as components of relatively insoluble minerals, however, only a small fraction (about 1%) is present in a form available to plants, i.e., water-soluble and exchangeable K. Highly weathered acid soils (of tropical regions) are more frequently deficient in plant available K, whereas soils of arid and semi-arid areas tend to be well supplied with K.Nevertheless, extractable-K, or exchangeable plus water-soluble K, is often considered the plant-available fraction and is routinely measured in the region's laboratories. Water-soluble K tends to be a large proportion of the extractable K fraction in drier-region soils.Where levels of extractable-K values are less than 100 to 150 ppm; K deficiency is likely and fertilization is required to maximize crop production with irrigation or high K requiring crops, the critical level should be even higher.1 Extractable PotassiumThis fraction of soil K is the sum of water-soluble and exchangeable K. The method uses a neutral salt solution to replace the cations present on the soil exchange complex; therefore, the cation concentration determined by this method are referred to as "exchangeable" for non-calcareous soils. For calcareous soils, the cations are referred to as "exchangeable plus soluble" (Richards, 1954).ApparatusFlame photometer with accessories.Centrifuge, capable of 3000 rmp.Mechanical shaker, reciprocating.ReagentsA. Ammonium Acetate Solution (NH4OAc), 1 N• Add 57 mL concentrated acetic acid (CH3COOH) to 800 mL DI water, and then add 68 mL concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), mix well, and let the mixture cool.Adjust to pH 7.0 by adding more acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide, and bring to 1-L volume with DI water.B. Standard Stock Solution• Dry about 3 g potassium chloride (KCl) in an oven at 120°C for 1 – 2 hours and cool in a desiccator, and store in a tightly stoppered bottle.• Dissolve 1.907 g dried potassium chloride in DI water, and bring to 1-L volume with DI water. This solution contains 1000 ppm K (Stock Solution).• Prepare a series of Standard Solutions from the Stock Solution as follows: Dilute 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15 and 20 mL Stock Solution to 100-mL final volume of each by adding DI water or 1 N ammonium acetate solution. These solutions contain 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, and 200 ppm K, respectively.NoteStandard solutions for measuring soluble-K should be prepared in DI water, but for measuring extractable-K the standards should be made in ammonium acetate solution.Procedure1. Weigh 5 g air-dry soil (< 2-mm) into a 50-mL centrifuge tube, add 33 mL ammonium acetate solution, and shake for 5 minutes on a shaker. The tubes should be stoppered with a clean rubber or polyethylene stopper, but not corks, which may introduce errors.2. Centrifuge until the supernatant liquid is clear and collect the extract in a 100- mL volumetric flask through a filter paper to exclude any soil particles. Repeat this process two more times and collect the extract each time.3. Dilute the combined ammonium acetate extracts to 100 mL with 1 N ammonium acetate solution.4. Run a series of suitable potassium standards, and draw a calibration curve.5. Measure the samples (soil extracts), and take the emission readings on a Flame Photometer at 767-nm wavelength.6. Calculate potassium (K) concentrations according to the calibration curve.CALCULATIONFor Extractable Potassium in soil:Where: A = Total volume of the extract (mL)Wt = Weight of air-dry soil (g)2 Soluble PotassiumThis fraction is a measure of the amount of K extracted from the soil by water.Procedure1. Weigh 5 g air-dry soil (<2 mm) into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask, add 100 mL DI water, and shake for 1 hour.2. Filter and measure soluble-K on a Flame Photometer.CALCULATIONA Extractable K (ppm) = ppm K (from calibration curve) × .... WtA Soluble K (ppm) = ppm K (from calibration curve) × ... WtFor Soluble Potassium in soil:3 Exchangeable PotassiumExchangeable K, or that held on the exchange sites or surfaces of clay minerals, is normally the dominant portion of total extractable K. It can be deduced by difference. For Exchangeable Potassium in soil:Note1. Exchangeable sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) can be measured in the same way as derived for exchangeable potassium (K). Extractable-Na, Ca, and Mg are measured in the ammonium acetate extract and soluble Na, Ca, and Mg in the water extract. The difference will represent exchangeable Na, Ca, and Mg.2. A range of 20 to 200 ppm of Na standards may be prepared in ammonium acetate solution for extractable Na and in de-ionized water for soluble Na.3. After extraction, the filtrate containing K, Mg, Ca and Na should not be stored for longer than 24 hours unless it is refrigerated or treated to prevent bacterial growth.4. Soils can be stored in an air-dry condition for several months without anyExchangeable K (ppm) = Extractable K (ppm) - Soluble (ppm) ....... (40)
0Add a comment
-
-
Why Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) at 5 days??
BOD or “Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand” is an important factor which describes us how pure the given water sample is. It represents the amount of “Dissolved Oxygen“ consumed by microbes to convert the organics present to carbon dioxide and water. Higher the BOD value higher is the water polluted. A sample of water with lesser BOD value is less polluted than a one with much higher value.
* Generally as per global standards BOD value of sample at 5 days which incubated at 20 degrees Celsius is represented as the standard BOD of the sample. The reason for taking 5 days BOD as standard is due to the following fact:
The “Dissolved Oxygen” present in water gets used for the decomposition of organic matter as well as nitrogenous matter.
From the combined BOD curve, we have two oxygen demands: 1. Carbonaceous BOD (initial) , 2. Nitrogenous BOD (final).
The first 5 days demand is the “Carbonaceous Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand” which accounts for 68% of the total BOD value. Hence taking the value of 5 days BOD as a standard one represents the oxygen demand for the decomposition of organic matter only.0Add a comment
`Transforming Railways,`I seek your increased participation and support. Together we can make
the Indian Railways better.
0
Add a comment
Loading
Dynamic Views template. Powered by Blogger.
Add a comment