Thursday, 7 July 2016

Typical Boiler Questions



Typical Boiler Questions
What is Scale Formation ?
How do I stop Scale Formation from happening ?
What is corrosion ?
How do I stop Corrosion ?
Why all the concern about Condensate Treatment and Monitoring ?
How do I prevent the Most Common Boiler Problems ?
A More In-depth Look
What is the meaning of Horse power ?
What is Scale Formation ?
Scale formations in boilers are responsible for lost efficiency, increased maintenance and operating costs not to mention lost revenue due to outages and downtime. Most scale formations in boilers can be traced to the presence of hardness in the make-up water. This hardness reacts in the high temperatures environment within the boiler to form and insoluble scale. This insoluble scale coats the heat transfer surfaces, acting as an insulator to impede heat transfer.
Hardness isn't the only cause if scale formation in boilers, other impurities such as iron, silica, copper, oil, etc. are often found in samples of boiler scale. In fact, it is rare to find scale which isn't the result of several of these impurities.
Normally pre-softening the water before feeding it to the boiler is the first step in eliminating scale formations. Even when the make-up is soft, there is still a need for chemical scale inhibitors inside the boiler. With proper treatment the problems of lost efficiency, tube damage and lost production can be avoided or greatly reduced. Proper treatment requires the right balance of chemical treatment and control.
How do I stop Scale Formation from happening ?
The first and foremost aspect of stopping scale formation is to have a good idea of the make-up water that is feeding your system. If you aren't sure, have a certified laboratory complete a fully analysis on this water so you can make an informed decision on what exactly the potential problems you may encounter.
After determining these specific aspects of your make-up water then your water treatment expert can guide you through a program that fits your situation.
Just a few items that may be of concern when putting together a good water treatment program for your boiler.   A complete program will include sludge build-up, pH levels, oxygen removal, condensate treatment, and alkalinity levels. 
What is corrosion ?
Corrosion in boilers can almost always be traced to one or both of two problems. The most common cause is dissolved oxygen entering the system via the feed-water. The oxygen causes very localized corrosion to occur in the form of pitting. The pits are small but deep pinpoint holes which eventually can penetrate tube walls and cause their failure. Another common cause of corrosion in boiler systems is low pH within the boiler. This reduced pH may result from carbon dioxide infiltration or form contamination  by other chemicals.
Oxygen corrosion is normally controlled by driving the oxygen from the feed-water in a deaerating heater or by chemically removing it with an oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite.
There are many contaminates which can infiltrate a boiler system and cause low pH levels to develop. Manufacturing wastes such as sugar or acids from plating operations which can be returned to the boiler with condensate can be a source of problems because they concentrate in the boiler. Oxygen can infiltrate the boiler system at virtually any point. When dissolved, oxygen is present in boiler feed water attach on feed lines, pumps and economizers can be expected. The severity of the attach depends upon the concentration of the oxygen and the temperature of the water.
You can use a deaerator which is defined as a piece of equipment which heats water with steam to insure essentially  complete removal of dissolved gases. There are several types of deaerator available, each having its own advantages and disadvantages.
Internal treatment for dissolved oxygen corrosion is normally accomplished by the addition of sodium sulfite. Most oxygen scavengers contain a catalyst which speeds the reaction of the sulfite with the oxygen. In systems equipped with a deaerator the sulfite should be fed to the storage tank of the deaerator or to either the suction or pressure side of the feed water pump. In systems which do not have a deaerator, the sulfite can be fed at almost any point in the feed water system, including the condensate tank.
Internal treatment for carbon dioxide is normally accomplished by the use of a volatile amine. "Amine" refers to any of a number of chemicals derived from ammonia. There are two major groups of amines in practice as water treatment chemicals today. There are normally referred to as "neutralizing amines" or "filming amines" depending upon whether they neutralize the acid formed by carbon dioxide or form a protective film on the metal.
Filming amines do not neutralize the carbonic acid which forms in condensate systems. Instead, they form a film on the metal which is non-wettable, or impervious to water. this protective film prevents the corrosive impurities from contacting the metal.
 Neutralizing amines function by increasing the pH of the condensate. Normally they are fed at such a rate that the pH of  the condensate is maintained slightly above 7.0. Satisfactory reduction of carbon dioxide corrosion is possible with the use of a neutralizing amine. it is necessary to supplement this type of condensate protection with an oxygen scavenger to remove dissolved oxygen.
Whether condensate corrosion is controlled by chemical treatment or a combination of mechanical and chemical methods, it is important that careful checks and testing be incorporated as a part of the treatment program. No treatment can be better than the way in which it is applied. Consult a water treatment expert to get you started on the right foot.
Why all the concern about Condensate Treatment and Monitoring ?

You Condensate is  very important to your facilities overall operation, ignoring this unseen component will soon cause failures costing  bottom-line dollars. Therefore, condensate must be treated with the proper chemistry.  Treating  your plants steam condensate  is critical for several reason, but these are the most important two reasons:

1.    To insure the integrity of your equipment.
2.    To keep the amount of condensate corrosion minerals that are returned to the boiler's
        makeup water in check.

Corrosion in your steam lines occurs when the carbonic acid builds up and begins to breakdown the metallic surfaces throughout the system. When the Carbonic acid is allowed to build, localized attacks occur due to the simple  increase in  CO2, which is the breakdown product of carbonate alkalinity in the boiler, condensing with water to form H2CO3. This results in the "pitting" of condensate piping, which usually shows up by visual  leaks at threaded junctions.  Oxygen pitting occurs as steam condenses and the vacuum created pulls air into the system. Due to  the localized nature of oxygen pitting,  it can cause relatively quick failure in a condensate system.
The most common method of dealing with this problem is through the use of neutralizing amines. These chemicals, better known as  morpholine and cyclohexylamine,  neutralize the carbon acid, and increase the pH of the condensate. Corrosion of mixed metallurgy condensate systems is minimized when the pH is maintained between 8.8 and 9.0. Due to high alkalinity in boiler makeup water elevating the pH to this level may not be economical. In this case the pH should be maintained at 8.3 or higher, or a filming amine applied.
A filming amine, such as octyldecylamine, provides a non-wettable protective barrier against both carbonic acid and oxygen. When utilizing a filming amine, the pH is usually maintained between 6.5 and 7.5, so a neutralizing amine may still be required.

In order to minimize oxygen pitting one can utilize a filming amine as previously mentioned, or a volatile oxygen scavenger such as DEHA (diethylhydroxyamine.) DEHA provides better results as it scavenges oxygen and passivates or coats the condensate system, making it less susceptible to corrosion.
 
Depending on the treatment method chosen, condensate monitoring can vary. In all cases the following tests should be performed.

1.    Soluble and insoluble iron levels.
2.    pH levels at various points in your steam condensate system. It is extremely important that pH measurements be made on cooled samples. If the sample is taken hot, carbon dioxide will gas off, which results in artificially high pH measurements.

If a filming amine is utilized, the residual should be measured. The same is true if DEHA is used as
an oxygen scavenger. In the latter case, a residual of 100 to 150 ppb is usually targeted. Note that
this may take time (as much as 6 months) since much of the DEHA will be consumed passivating
the system.
How do I to Prevent the Most Common Boiler Problems ?

A regular inspection schedule is critical and should cover four areas: boiler, burner, controls, and
system.

Preventive maintenance is the most widely used means of minimizing common problems in boilers.
Unfortunately, most maintenance programs do not properly address the needs of the boiler and its
related systems. Statistics indicate about two-thirds of all boiler failures and nearly all unscheduled
shutdowns are caused by poor maintenance and operation.

Boiler inspection and maintenance are critical. It covers four basic areas: boiler, burner, controls, and system.
Regardless of boiler design, application, or size, the basic maintenance criteria remain the same.

Maintaining the Boiler
There are eight primary areas of the boiler itself that should he examined or inspected regularly.

Water level. The most important maintenance inspection is to check the boiler water level daily.
Insufficient water causes pressure vessel damage or failure. At a minimum, steel in the pressure
vessel could overheat. The condition could change the pressure withholding capabilities of the
vessel, necessitating vessel repair or replacement. More seriously, a low water level could damage
the equipment or building. or even cause personal injury.

Boiler blow down. Steam boilers should be blown down daily to maintain recommended dissolved
solids levels and to remove sludge and sediment. Hot water boilers generally take on no makeup
water and, therefore do not need to be blown down.

As the boiler takes on makeup water the solids concentration builds up. Solids accumulate in either
dissolved or suspended form. Unless they are controlled dissolved solids promote carryover of
water with the steam causing water hammer and damaging piping, valves, or other equipment.
Carryover also raises the moisture content in the steam, affecting proper operation of equipment that
uses steam.

Suspended solids, which cause sludge or sediment in the boiler, must be removed because they
affect the heat transfer capabilities of the pressure vessel. Sludge buildup leads to problems ranging
from poor fuel-to-steam efficiency to pressure vessel damage.

Water column blow down. Water columns on steam boilers should be blown down once each shift
or at a minimum once a day. This action keeps the column and piping connections clean and free of
sediment or sludge. The water column also must he kept clean to ensure the water level in the gauge
glass accurately represents the water level in the boiler. The gauge glass and tricocks connected to
the water column are the only means of visually verifying boiler water level.

The low-water cutoff should be checked once a week by shutting off the feed water pump and
letting the water evaporate under normal steam conditions at low fire. The gauge glass should he
observed and marked at the exact point at which the low water cutoff shuts down the boiler. The
test verifies operation of the low-water cutoff under operating conditions. The low-water cutoff also
should the removed and cleaned every six months.

Water treatment. Proper water treatment prolongs boiler life and ensure safe and reliable operation.
Treatment programs are designed around the quality and quantity of raw water makeup and system
design. They should be directed by a qualified water management consultant. Flue gas temperature.
Flue gas temperature is a good indicator of boiler efficiency changes. The temperature should be
recorded regularly and compared to those of a clean boiler under the same operating conditions.
Accurately determining the affect on efficiency requires that the firing rate and operating pressure be
the same.   

A rise in flue gas temperature usually indicates dirt on the fireside of the boiler or scale on the
waterside. As a rule of thumb a 40-deg F rise in temperature reduces boiler efficiency 1% The cost
of fireside cleaning should be compared to those of lower operating efficiencies to determine the
minimum temperature rise at which the fireside should be cleaned. Other factors also affect flue gas
temperature. For example, a rise in stack temperature may indicate a baffle or seal in one of the
boiler's passes has failed.

Waterside and fireside surfaces. Waterside and fireside surfaces should be inspected and cleaned
annually. A visual inspection provides an early warning that the vessel needs repair or water
treatment or that combustion needs adjustment. Inspecting and cleaning water-column connections
should receive special attention. Soot in the breeching is a fire hazard and can cause severe
combustion-related problems.

Safety valves. Safety valves are the most important safety devices on the boiler They are the last line
of defense for protecting the pressure vessel from overpressure. Once a year. operating pressure
should be tested by bringing the relief valve to its setting. Valves should pop and reseat according to
the valve stamping.

Refractory. Refractory protects steel not in direct contact with the water from overheating. It also
helps maintain proper burner flame patterns and performance. If the boiler remains on all the time,
refractory should be inspected twice a year. If the boiler cycles more frequently or is turned on and
off daily, refractory should be inspected more often.

Heating and cooling refractory a lot shortens its life considerably. It cracks and eventually fails. Hot
spots on the steel that the refractory protects indicate refractory or gasket failure. If a hot spot is
found, the cause should be determined and repaired immediately to prevent the steel from failing.

Maintaining the Burner
Although burners vary by design, application, fuel, regulations, and insurance requirements, the same
basic maintenance criteria must be addressed. Burner maintenance generally focuses on safety.
efficiency, and reliability. Adjustments should be made only by a trained service technician using the
proper instrumentation and tools.

Combustion. Poor combustion is unsafe and costly. Changes in combustion air temperature and
barometric pressure, for example, impact burner performance (see table). Low excess air levels
result in incomplete combustion, sooting, and wasted fuel. High excess air levels raise stack
temperatures and reduce boiler efficiency. Maintaining steady excess air levels with an oxygen trim
system helps ensure optimum efficiency at all times.

Visually inspecting combustion is the easiest way to detect changes that affect safety and efficiency.
Changes in flame shape, color, and sound are among early indicators of potential
combustion-related problems. Changes may be due to:

Large fluctuations in ambient temperatures
Changes in fuel temperature, pressure, heating value, or viscosity
Linkage movement dirty or worn nozzle
Dirty or distorted diffuser dirty fan
Dirt on the boiler fireside
Furnace refractory damage.

Visual combustion inspection should be compared to flame characteristics observed at similar firing
rates with efficient combustion. However, combustion efficiency is verifiable only with a flue gas
analyzer. Even if a flame appears to be good, it should be checked with an analyzer and adjusted
once a month.

Fuel and air linkage. Changes in fuel and air linkage affect the combustion fuel-to-air ratio. Flame
failure or a hazardous fuel rich condition may result. Proper linkage settings should be physically
marked or pinned together. Linkage should be checked for positioning, tightness, and binding. Any
noticeable changes should be remedied immediately.
Oil pressure and temperature. Pressure and temperature directly affect the ability of oil to properly
atomize and burn completely and efficiently. Changes promote flame failure, fuel-rich combustion,
sooting, oil buildup in the furnace, and visible stack emissions. Causes include a dirty strainer, worn
pump, faulty relief valve, or movement in linkage or pressure-regulating valve set point. Oil
temperature changes typically are caused by a dirty heat exchanger or a misadjusted or defective
temperature control.

Gas pressure. Gas pressure is critical to proper burner operation and efficient combustion. Irregular
pressure leads to flame failure or high amounts of carbon monoxide. It may even cause over or
under firing, affecting the boiler's ability to carry the load. Gas pressure should be constant at steady
loads, and should not oscillate during firing rate changes.

Usually, pressure varies between low and high fire. Therefore, readings should be compared to
those taken at equivalent firing rates to determine if adjustments are needed or a problem exists.
Gas pressure irregularities are typically caused by fluctuations in supply pressure to the boiler
regulator or a dirty or defective boiler gas pressure regulator.

Atomizing media pressure. When oil is burned, an atomizing medium, either air or steam, is needed
for proper, efficient combustion. Changes in atomizing media pressure cause sooting, oil buildup in
the furnace, or flame failure. Changes result from a regulator or air compressor problem or a dirty
oil nozzle.

Fuel valve closing. If a fuel valve leaks, after burn may occur when the burner is turned off, or raw
fuel could leak into a hot boiler and cause an explosion. When the burner is turned off, the flame
should extinguish immediately. Prolonged burning is a hazard and demands immediate action.

Maintaining the Controls
Controls are often used to protect the boiler against unsafe operation. Flame safeguard, operating,
limit, and safety interlock controls are among the most common. Of course, controls only protect
the boiler if they are maintained and adjusted properly.

Flame safeguard control. Also called the primary control or the programmer, the flame safeguard
control ensures safe light-off, operation, and shutdown of the burner. The control regulates purging
the boiler of all gases prior to trial for ignition. It also verifies that there is no flame in the boiler prior
to lightoff, and checks for a pilot before allowing the main flame to light. The control provides proof
that the main flame has ignited before releasing the boiler to the run (modulation) mode. Most
importantly it does not allow any action to occur if operating controls, limits, or safety interlocks are
open.

In addition, this control initiates a post purge upon shutdown to remove all gases from the boiler.
And it often provides a means for detecting a problem elsewhere in the system. Although the flame
safeguard is designed for fail-safe operation and is quite reliable, a faulty device can be catastrophic
and should not be ignored.

Operating and limit controls. These controls tell the boiler at what temperature and pressure to
operate. Proper settings minimize boiler cycling, maintain proper limits for efficient system operation,
and ensure the boiler shuts down when predetermined limits are reached.

Improperly set operating controls cause the burner to operate erratically and stress the pressure
vessel. All these controls should be checked weekly. The scale of the control for temperature or
pressure settings should not be relied upon. Settings should be verified with the actual operating
temperatures and pressures on the boiler gauges.

Safety and interlock controls. Safety and interlock controls vary with state, local, and federal codes
and insurance requirements. They must be operational at all times. Among the consequences of
inoperable safety interlocks are personal injury, equipment or property damage, and liability for
losses or damages. All interlocks should be checked weekly for proper operation. A defective
control should be replaced immediately. A control should never be bypassed to make a boiler run.

Indicating lights and alarms. Indicating lights and alarms are part of the control circuit. They alert the
operator to specific boiler conditions. Unfortunately, they are often neglected and do not provide
the intended information. Many control circuits have test buttons to verify proper operation. Circuits
that do not should be checked by simulating conditions that activate a light or alarm.

Maintaining the System
All too often, when a boiler problem occurs, the system is overlooked. The emphasis falls on the
equipment and not the equipment's function in the overall system. An effective maintenance program
must be based on an understanding of the entire system and the function of each piece of equipment.
Only an understanding of the system provides the means for preventing the causes of system-related
problems and reducing the time spent on the symptoms.
 

Operating conditions. Operating parameters of the boiler room system should be recorded daily.
The data provide a means for evaluating boiler operation trends that affect efficiency, downtime, and
maintenance planning. The following data should be recorded.

Feed water pressure/temperature. Changes in feed water pressure affect the system's ability to
maintain proper boiler water levels. A pressure drop may be caused by a leaky check valve on a
standby pump or a worn pump impeller. Changes in feed water temperature are indicative of a
problem in the deaerator, potential pump seal damage, loss in efficiency, dirty economizer, dirty
blow down heat recovery exchanger, or excessive or insufficient condensate returns.

Boiler water supply/return temperatures. On hot water systems, supply and return temperatures to
the boiler are a means for evaluating the system's effect on the boiler and vice versa. The desired
operating temperature set point and temperature differential across the boiler should be evaluated
against the system design to determine if a potential problem exists. High temperature differentials
caused by excessive load or a control malfunction could cause thermal shock and subsequently
pressure vessel damage.

Makeup water use. Records of the amount of makeup water used help determine the presence of
leaks or losses in the system. They also assist in developing a more effective chemical treatment
program. Excessive water use indicates a change in system operation and, therefore, a change in
efficiency.

Steam pressure. Steam pressure operating set points usually are based on system design and type of
steam use. Pressure changes are typically caused by problems with control settings, burner
operation, boiler efficiency, or, most commonly, changes in steam demand.

Leaks, noise, vibration, and unusual conditions. Checking for leaks, noise, vibration, and the like is a
cost-effective way to detect system operational changes. For example, a small leak is repaired by
tightening connections. By the time a leak becomes large, sealing surfaces usually are worn and
major repairs are needed.
 
A More In-depth Look
A maintenance program must focus on prevention to be an effective tool. Whether the maintenance
program is motivated by safety, cost, reliable operation, or all of these, it is the best means of
preventing common, boiler-related problems.
 
Automatic low-high water control equipment must be serviced on a daily basis when the boiler is in operation. A high frequency of boiler failures is the result of low water, and can be attributed to a careless boiler operator. A procedure must be established at your school to regularly clean the glass gauge column by "blowing down" the column at the start of the school day, during non-peak operating periods, and at the conclusion of the school day or shift. This ensures ability to determine the level of water in the boiler.

Low Water
A major reason for damages incurred to low pressure steam boilers is the low water within the boiler. If the condition of low water exists it can seriously weaken the structural members of the boiler, and result in needless inconvenience and cost. Low pressure boilers can be protected by installing an automatic water level control device.

Steam boilers are usually equipped with automatic water level control devices. It must be noted, however, that most failures occur due to low water on boilers equipped with automatic control devices. The water control device will activate water supply or feed water pumps to introduce water at the proper level, interrupt the gas chain and ignition process when the water reaches the lowest permissible level, or perform both functions depending on design and interlocking systems. No matter how automatic a water control device may be, it is unable to operate properly if sediment scale and sludge are allowed to accumulate in the float chamber.

Accumulations of matter will obstruct and interfere with the proper operation of the float device, if not properly maintained. To ensure for the reliability of the device, procedures must be established in your daily preventive maintenance program to allow "blow-down" the float chamber at least once a day. Simply open the drain for 3 to 5 seconds making certain that the water drain piping is properly connected to a discharge line in accordance with local  Codes. This brief drainage process will remove loose sediment deposits, and at the same time, test the operation of the water level control device. If the water level control device does not function properly it must be inspected, repaired and retested to guarantee proper operation.

Low Water Cutoff - Tests and Maintenance
There are two very effective tests for low water controls on steam boilers. The first is the quick drain. or blow down test, which should be performed at a time other than a peak steam generating period. As the water is drained from the column the firing sequence is interrupted, the low water alarm signal activates and the boiler operation shuts down.

The second, and more costly method is the slow-drain test. By opening the blow down valves the water level can be checked to determine the water level in the column, the gauge glass, and the boiler. The boiler should shut down while you determine the level in the gauge glass.

As a safety precaution, the low water float chamber of hot water boilers should be tested daily, at the beginning of the shift, at the end of the shift, and once during non-peak firing periods. Time of tests and the boiler controls tested should be recorded on your Boiler Room Log.

Annually, or as required, a thorough inspection of all low water control parts shall be performed. The annual inspection should include opening and cleaning the water chamber.
 
Feed Water Pumps
Old, worn and obsolete feed water pumps are sometimes overlooked as potential problems. A centrifugal pump may have worn seal rings that allow the water to chum between the suction and discharge openings.

An indicator of the latter problem is low pressure discharge. Also, by comparing the time it takes to raise the boiler water level to a predetermined level or the time to empty the condensate tank to the time it formerly required, it is possible to determine if a pump is operating properly. Also, a pump that operates quietly does not mean it is functioning properly.

Overpressure
Safe operation of a boiler is dependent on a vital accessory, the safety valve. Failure to test the safety valve on a regular basis or to open it manually periodically can result in heavy accumulations of scale, deposits of sediment or sludge near the valve. These conditions can cause the safety valve spring to solidify or the disc to seal, ultimately rendering the safety valve inoperative. A constantly simmering safety valve is a danger sign and must not be neglected. Your preventive maintenance program includes the documentation and inspection of the safety valve. A daily test must be performed when the boiler is in operation Simply raise the hand operating lever quickly to its limit and allow it to snap closed. Any tendency of a sticking, binding or leaking of the safety valve must be corrected immediately.

Steam Traps - Care and Maintenance
Steam traps have play a very important role in steam distribution systems. The service performed by steam traps is primarily to discharge condensate. Normally a steam trap can be easily and quickly selected by considering only the average operating conditions. However, an exact analysis of these conditions will give the proper data necessary for selecting the type and size for greater savings and proper plant operation. After the careful selection of the steam trap, it must be properly installed, tested, periodically inspected, cleaned and maintained to keep it operating efficiently.

Traps need cleaning periodically. A simple way to prevent dirt from entering is to drop a short length of pipe vertically below the supply to the trap (called a dirt leg) which can be cleaned easily and frequently.

Traps can be seriously damaged by scale or pipe comings in lines. A good practice is to install strainers ahead of the traps which should be inspected and cleaned frequently.

Traps are subject to severe wear if steam blows through continuously. They should be inspected for worn valve parts or a change in operating conditions.

When a steam trap fails to discharge, inspect the heating system and be certain that all units are drained with separate traps, thus guarding against short circuiting, loss of energy, and reduction of operating efficiency.

Traps operating under high pressure or superheated steam are often insulated in a manner similar to adjacent pipe lines. In such instances, they shall be fitted with dirt pockets, test valves, and drains.

Steam traps installed in areas exposed to climatic conditions will lose heat if not insulated and may freeze unless adequately protected. Discharge lines should be short and self draining and traps should be fitted with a drain tapping and valves.

Steam traps handling large volumes of air require more frequent inspection and proper venting for efficient operation. Vents shall be used to avoid air binding and ensure positive drainage. Gauge glasses shall be kept in proper repair, for they indicate whether or not the trap is working. Periodic cleaning and gauge glass replacement shall be considered as a high priority in the maintenance of steam traps.

All steam traps require protection from corrosion to prevent unnecessary deterioration. All valves, joints, and gaskets should be kept tight to avoid steam leakage and ultimate energy losses. For continuous and efficient operation. steam traps require periodic inspection and maintenance for purposes of eliminating foreign matter and obstructions in supply and discharge lines. Each steam trap at an assigned work station should be inspected as specified by the preventive maintenance program.
 
Steam Trap - Troubleshooting
It is important to inspect the operation of steam traps frequently. There are many conditions under which traps may fail to operate property. The following are some of the most common reasons for trap failures:

1. Condensate does not flow into the trap:

    A. Obstruction in line to trap inlet.
    B.  Valves leading to trap are closed.
    C. Bypass open or leaking.
    D. Trap may be air bound.
    E.  Insufficient pressure to blow condensate through orifice.
    F.  Improper installation of trap.
    G. Accumulation of foreign matter within the trap.
    H. Trap held closed by defective mechanism.
    I.   Strainer may be blocked.

2. Condensate fails to drain from trap.

    A. Discharge valve may be closed.
    B. Trap may not be large enough to handle condensate.
    C. Pressure may be too low to blow the condensate through.
    D. Improper installation for draining.
    E. Check valve may not be holding.
    F. Obstruction in return line or the line may simply be too small.

3. Trap does not shut off.

    A. Trap is too small for the condensate load.
    B. Trap held open by defective mechanism,
    C. Overload due to excessive boiler foaming or priming.
    D. Submerged steam coils leaking.
    E. Differential pressure exceeds design of trap.
    F. Scale or foreign matter lodged in orifice.

4. Steam blows through trap.

    A. Valve mechanism does not close due to wear or defective valve.
    B. Mechanism is held open by foreign matter.
    C. Trap has not been properly primed or reprimed after clean-out or blow-off.
    D. Bypass is open or leaking.
    E. Excessive pressure for design of trap.
 
What is the meaning of Horse Power ?
 
Horse Power is a unit of measurement of the ability of a boiler to evaporate water, usually given as
 the ability to evaporate 34¸ lb. (15.6 kg) of water an hour, into dry saturated steam
 from and at 212¡F (100¡C).
 
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  2. Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada    Dated :Jul 06, 2016
    Kakinada
    Past 24 Hours Weather Data
    Maximum Temp(oC) (Recorded. on 06/07/16) 34.0
    Departure from Normal(oC) 1
    Minimum Temp (oC) (Recorded. on 06/07/16) 28.3
    Departure from Normal(oC) 2
    24 Hours Rainfall (mm) (Recorded from 0830 hrs IST
    of yesterday to 0830 hrs IST of today)    		 NIL
    Todays Sunset (IST) 18:39
    Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:33
    Moonset (IST) 20:16
    Moonrise (IST) 07:11
    7 Day's Forecast
    Date Min Temp Max Temp Weather
    06-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers
    07-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers
    08-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers
    09-Jul 28.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers
    10-Jul 27.0 33.0 Generally cloudy sky with one or two spells of rain or thundershowers
    11-Jul 27.0 32.0 Generally cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm
    12-Jul 27.0 32.0 Generally cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm







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  3. Presentation  By Secretary (Fertilizers)

    National Conference on Agriculture  for Rabi 2014-15

    Sales of P&K Fertilizers (DAP,MOP & NPK)
    Major Concerns In Indian Agriculture 
      • Depleting soil organic matter
      • Imbalance in fertilizer use
      • Emerging multi-nutrient deficiencies
      • Declining nutrient use efficiency
      • Declining crop response ratio
      • Negative soil nutrient balance
    Deteriorating balance in NPK
    Deteriorating balance in NPK
    The N-P-K ratio worsened acutely in certain states     
    NPK Ratios across states in India for 2013 
    EAST 
    SOUTH 
    Bihar 
    12.3 : 3.6 : 1 
    Andhra Pradesh 
    7.1 : 2.8 : 1 
    Orissa 
    6.2 : 2.4 : 1 
    Karnataka 
    3.6 : 1.6 : 1 
    West Bengal 
    2.9 : 1.6 : 1 
    Tamil Nadu 
    3.9 : 1.5 : 1 
    NORTH 
    WEST 
    Haryana 
    61.4 : 18.7 : 1 
    Gujarat 
    13.2 : 3.4 : 1 
    Punjab 
    61.7 : 19.2 : 1 
    Maharashtra 
    3.5 : 1.8 : 1 
    Uttar Pradesh 
    25.2 : 8.8 : 1 
    Rajasthan 
    44.9 : 16.5 : 1
    Nutrient 
    Efficiency 
    Cause of low efficiency 
    Nitrogen 
    30-50 % 
    Immobilization, volatilization, denitrification, Leaching  
    Phosphorus 
    15-20% 
    Fixation in soils Al – P, Fe – P, Ca – P 
    Potassium 
    70-80% 
    Fixation in clay - lattices 
    Sulphur 
    8-10% 
    Immobilization, Leaching with water  
    Micro nutrients (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, B) 
    1-2% 
    Fixation in soils 
    Reasons:
    The loss of N through leaching and volatilization creates pollution and has environmental implications. 
    Major Concerns In  Indian Agriculture 
    Declining nutrient use efficiency
    Major Concerns In  Indian Agriculture 
    Reasons:
    • Inadequate and imbalanced fertiliser use
    • Increasing multi-nutrient deficiency
    • Lack of farmers awareness about balanced plant nutrition
    • Poor crop management (Excess fertiliser dose not be the   substitute of poor management) 

    Declining Fertilizer Response - Irrigated Areas
    Soil Organic Carbon Map 
    • Organic carbon status in all the major states is low
    • West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka are the major states where organic carbon is low

    Over All India Organic Carbon Status 
    67% of Indian Soil is having lower organic Carbon 
    Source: Coromandel’s Internal Finding
    OC test done  - 3.4 lac samples
    Suggested Medium term Strategy 
    • Use of optimal dose based on soil health status.
    • Promotion of Neem-Coated Urea.
    • Promotion of Micronutrients.
    • Promotion of Organic Fertilizers.
    • Promotion of Water Soluble Fertilizer under NHM.
    Operational Issues 
    • Quality Control & Enforcement of FCO mandated standards.
    • Strengthening of the enforcement measures to prevent hoarding/ black marketing/ Smuggling /diversion of subsidised fertilizers to non-agriculture use.
    • Operationalisation of mFMS at the retailer level.
    • Close Coordination with Suppliers and timely placement of Indent with Railways.
    • Collaboration in the Pilot Project for tracking & tracing of fertilizers sales.
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  4. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways01-July, 2016 19:39 IST
    Shri Nitin Gadkari launches initial plantation drive on 1,500 km of National Highways under Green Highways Project
    Union Minister of Road Transport & Highways and Shipping Shri Nitin Gadkari launched the initial plantation drive on 1,500 km of National Highways at a cost of about Rs 300 crore under the National Green Highways Mission in New Delhi today. The launch was announced at a workshop orgnized by the National Green Highways Mission on the theme "Green Highways Projects: Way Ahead.   Speaking on the occasion Shri Gadkari said that the greening project has a huge potential to generate jobs and can prove to be a game-changer for agriculture and rural economy. Greening of one km of highway provides employment to ten people. Today's launch of  1,500 km under the Mission will employ 15,000 people . The Minister further said that the project may even be linked with the NREGA scheme.
    Under the Green Highways Project, the government has made it mandatory to set aside 1 per cent of the total project cost of any NH contract to a Green Fund corpus that will be used for plantation purposes. The afforestation is expected to help in sequestering approximately 12 lakh mt carbon annually. 
    Organized in line with Green Highways Policy – 2015, today's  workshop was a step forward in actualizing the vision of developing eco-friendly and green National Highways. The event saw the unveiling of Guidelines for Implementation, the Vision Document and the  Knowledge Reports of the project.
    The Guidelines document, developed by National Green Highways Mission is in compliance to the directives of Green Highways Policy (GHP) 2015 issued by Ministry of Road Transport & Highways. The document incorporates the recommendations of the GHP and acts as a comprehensive roadside plantation and management manual.
    The Vision Document of National Green Highways Mission will essentially define the approach National Green Highway Project intends to take for planning, implementation and monitoring of Green Highways Project. The Vision document, comprising strategy, mission and action plan for 2016-2026, focuses on core issues, future roadmaps and success indicators for effective implementation of Green Highways Project
    NGHM-YES BANK Knowledge Report on ‘Transplanting for Growth’ puts transplantation at the centre of discussion in the mission of greening our highways. The report presents a compelling case for taking up transplantation as the preferred technique for plantation along the highways.   
    The following MoUs were also signed on the occasion :  
    Partnering Organizations
    Length awarded for Green Highways Projects
    NGHM-NHAI and Haryana Forest Department
    418 Kms
    NGHM-NHAI Andhra Pradesh Urban Greening and Beautification Corporation Ltd
    360 Kms
    In addition to this  a charter was signed between NGHM and YES BANK to create awareness on greening of highways and explore synergies between NGHM’s objectives and YES BANK’s CoP21 commitment of planting 20 lakh saplings by 2020. A testimony to this charter was the awareness program that was launched across 400 locations through YES BANK’s YES COMMUNITY initiative.
    The event also saw the launch of ‘Adopt a Green Highway’ Program .The National Green Highway Mission initiated the program’ to engage corporates, Public Sector units, Government organizations and other institutions for developing green corridor along National Highways through plantation and allied activity on avenue, median and other available nearby land patches . Besides this ‘Kisan Harit Rajmarg Yojana’ was also launched on the occasion. The Yojana is a pilot scheme to extend green belt beyond the existing ‘Right of Way’ of highways by engaging farmers and providing alternative livelihood option to the nearby communities.
    A National Green Highways Mission Mobile App was also launched on the occasion. The mobile application will enable the management to monitor all the projects with real time data from the fields.  The technology will assist in identifying the bottlenecks quickly and ensure speedy and successful implementations of the projects. 
    The workshop, was also attended by  Shri Rao Narbir Singh, Hon’ble Minsiter PWD and Forests, Haryana, Shri Sanjay Mitra ,Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Shri Raghav Chandra Chairman, National Highway Authority of India and other senior officials.
    ***
    UM/NP

    (Release ID :146720)

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  6. Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers04-July, 2016 18:12 IST
    MRP of DAP and MOP fertilizers to come down with immediate effect; Enough availability of all the required fertilizers in the country

    There is a good news for farmers in the country. In a press conference held today, Shri Ananth Kumar, Minister of Chemicals and Fertilizers informed the media that he along with MOS(C&F) Shri Hansraj Gangaram Ahir, reviewed the availability of fertilizers in a high level meeting held today, and they were happy to inform the country that due to progressive policies of Narendrabhai Modi Government, there is enough availability of all the required fertilizers like Urea, DAP, MOP, NPK etc., in the country. He said that all out efforts have been made to ensure that there will not be any shortage of fertilizers in our country for the coming Kharif season and farmers can plan their sowing without any apprehension on this account.

    While expressing satisfaction over the availability of Urea, MOP and DAP and other fertilizer, the Ministers also said Modi government is all geared up to ensure unhindered and assured supply of all the fertilizers. In this regard, a meeting of leading manufacturers was held in the department to emphasise that farmers must get the benefit of reduced input cost of DAP and MOP.

    Shri Ananth Kumar, Minister (C&F) and Shri Hansraj Gangaram Ahir, MoS (C&F) further said that they are happy to inform the farmer brethren that major public sector Fertilizer manufacturers - RCF, NFL have decided to bring down the MRP of DAP fertilizer by Rs.2500 PMT and of MOP by Rs.5000 PMT with immediate effect. Other fertilizer manufacturers have also agreed to bring down the price of MOP by Rs.5000 PMT. For DAP, they have agreed to reduce the MRP by more than Rs.2500 PMT. They said that now MOP 50 Kg. bag will cost Rs.250 less and DAP 50 Kg bag price will be reduced by Rs.125. The ministers stated that they have directed the Department that such meetings should be convened at regular intervals to ensure that farmers are passed on maximum benefits by the company’s manufacturing MOP, DAP and NPK fertilizers.

    On an average, the farmers in our Country use around 100 LMT of DAP, 25 LMT of MOP and 90 LMT of NPK fertilizers annually. Because of proactive steps of the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers, first ever time in last 15 years, the prices of DAP, MOP and NPK Fertilizers have been reduced substantially and approximately Rs.4500 crores worth of benefit have been transferred to Farmers at large annually.

    The vision of Modi Government being “Jamin Bachao-Kissan Bachao”, this reduction of price of P&K Fertilizers will go a long way in facilitating balanced use of fertilizers and improving soil health and its fertility.

    YB
    (Release ID :146766)

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  7. Ministry of Environment and Forests06-July, 2016 14:24 IST
    A Profile of New Environment Minister
                An environmentalist, river conservationist, writer, Member of Parliament and an amateur pilot - this is how Shri Anil Madhav Dave, the new Minister of State (Independent Charge) of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, is known for his various roles in society. 
                Born on July 6, 1956 in village Barnagar of Ujjain district in Madhya Pradesh,       Shri Dave received his primary education in Gujarat.  He did his Masters in Commerce with a specialisation in Rural Development & Management from Indore.  He was a student leader during his college days.
                He is well-known for his work on river Narmada through an organisation ‘Narmada Samagra’ founded by him, which works on conservation of Narmada and its catchment area through various activities and events.  He flew a Cessna 173 aircraft along the banks of Narmada for 18 hours to complete his circumambulation in air.  He travelled and completed an insurmountable raft journey of 1312 km long river Narmada in 19 days.  He is the driving force behind the organisation of a biennial event ‘River Festival’. This festival is one of its kind, in entire Asia.  It covers climate change and environmental issues, specially related to conservation of rivers across the globe.
                He has authored books on various subjects/areas like politics, administration, art & culture, travelogue, history, management, environment and climate changes.  Some of his books are:  “Shivaji & Suraaj; Creation to Cremation; rafting through a civilization: a travelogue; Shatabdi ke Paanch Kaale Panne; Sambhal Ke Rehna Apne Ghar Me Chhupe Hue Gaddaron Se; Mahanayak Chandrashekhar Azad; Roti Aur Kamal ki Kahani; Samagra Gram Vikas; Amarkantak se Amarkantak Tak ; Beyond Copenhagen; Yes I Can, So Can We”. 
                Shri Anil Madhav Dave has initiated the programme for development of bio-toilets in every school of Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. This programme was declared by the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, during his speech on Independence Day in 2014 from Red Fort in Delhi.  Through this project, 98000 students from 1880 schools in Hoshangabad district will have separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.
    Shri Dave has adopted “Jahanpur Panchayat” (cornerstone of a local self-government) having four villages under it (including Jahanpur) near the banks of river Narmada, which he has taken under ‘Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana’for its overall and ideal development.           
    He has held several important positions. These include:  Member, Standing Committee on Environment and Forest and Science & Technology; Member, Standing Committee of Water Resources; Member (Board of Governors) of Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan; Nominated as Member of Indian Council for Cultural Relations; Chairman, Select Committee on Prevention of Corruption (Amendment) Bill, 2013; Chairman, Select Committee on Coal Mines (Special Provision) Bill, 2015; Chairman, Select Committee on The Real Estate (Regulation & Development) Bill, 2015; vice President for the 10th World Hindi Conference held in Bhopal, organised by the Ministry of External Affairs; Chairman, Organising Committee for National Conference on “Global Warming & Climate Change – A Way Out” in the run-up to Simhasth Kumbh 2016; Chairman, Organising Committee for International Simhasth Summit 2016 “Vichar Mahakumbh”; Member of Select Committee on the Payment and Settlement Systems; Committee on Public Accounts; and member of Select Committee on ‘Wakf Board’.  He has attended conferences on environment and climate change organised by UNFCCC in various parts of the world.  He has also participated in seminars and conferences on counter-terrorism held every year in Israel.  He has extensively travelled in different parts of the United States of America, Europe and southern parts of Africa. 
    ***
    HK

    (Release ID :146850)

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  8. Ministry of Environment and Forests06-July, 2016 18:39 IST
    New Environment Minister holds meeting to see functioning of various departments
                Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Shri Anil Madhav Dave, held a meeting with senior officers of the Ministry here today, to see the functioning of various Departments of the Ministry.
    During the meeting, the Minister also discussed the current challenges being faced by the Ministry.   
    Displaying DSC_0226.JPG
    Shri Anil Madhav Dave holding a meeting with senior officers of MoEFCC
    Earlier in the day, Shri Dave took over as the new Minister of State (Independent Charge) of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. 
    ***
    HK

    (Release ID :146875)

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  10. Ministry of Agriculture06-July, 2016 17:16 IST
    Shri S.S Ahluwalia takes over charge as the new Minister of State for Agriculture & Farmers Welfare
    Shri S.S Ahluwalia took over charge as the new Minister of State for Agriculture & Farmers Welfare here today. Speaking on the occasion, the Minister said that to accelerate the development of Agriculture sector and reaching out to the farmers who are on the last ladder will be the focus.

    The Minister represents Darjeeling (West Bengal) Parliamentary constituency in Lok Sabha. Shri S.S Ahluwalia was a member of Parliament from Rajya Sabha representing Bihar and Jharkhand in 1986-1992, 1992-1998, 2000-2006 and 2006-2012. Shri Ahluwalia was Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha from June 2010 to May 2012.

    Shri Ahluwalia was born on 4th July, 1951 and is a Law Graduate. Shri Ahluwalia has been Member of various Parliamentary Committees. Shri S.S Ahluwalia has held various portfolios in the past including Minister of State for Urban Affairs and Employment (Department of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation) and Parliamentary Affairs.

    SS/AK
    (Release ID :146870)

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  11. With best regards,
     “Join the race to make the world a better place”.(2016)
    Dr. AMAR NATH GIRI
    EHSQ , NFCL
    M.Sc. -Environmental Science,Ph.D -Environmental Science law & DIPLOMA AS - P.G.D.E.P.L,CES, DCA,
    EX IIM LUCKNOW FELLOW, EX RESEARCH SCIENTIST
    IGIDR-MUMBAI 
    9912511918
    amarnathgiri@nagarjunagroup.com
    http://www.nagarjunagroup.com
    http://www.nagarjunafertilizers.com
    http://www.gprofonline.com/members/Default.aspx
    EHSQ BLOG : http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/?view=magazine
    http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2013/10/curriculum-vitae-of-dr-amar-nath-giri.html?q=BIO+DATA
    http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2012/05/nagarjuna-management-services.html

    ---------- Forwarded message ----------
    From: <sureshprabhu@irctc.co.in>
    Date: Tue, Jul 5, 2016 at 3:17 PM
    Subject: Ministry of Railways - Achievements & Initiatives
    To: goswami248@gmail.com


    Dear Friends,

    It is our Honorable Prime Minister's firm belief that Indian Railway has the potential to become
    the backbone of India's progress and economic development. This is the vision we all are
    working for at Indian Railways with you as our partner.
    18 months ago, when I took over the reigns of this great organization called Indian Railways, I
    was faced with many challenges. I had the option of making small incremental changes or go
    beyond business as usual. I chose the latter
    Bringing in systemic changes was the need of the hour. It was important to change the perception
    of Indian Railways from a slow moving behemoth to a responsive modern organization. It is
    satisfying for me to note that we have made some progress. A lot is still to be done.
    Our Prime Minister has asserted many times that our Government's priority is the commonest of
    common man of the country and it is with this in mind, we worked on improving the travel
    experience for our people. We launched a host of initiatives aimed at this.
    An E-book on two year achievements of Indian Railways:
    htt p://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/prd/downloads/Two_Years_
    Performance_Report.pdf

    Some of the important achievements are:





  12. Commissioned record 2828 kms of broad gauge lines which is 85% higher than 2009-14
        average annual commissioning. 7.7 kms lines commissioned per day against 2009-14
        average of 4.3 kms





  13. Capital expenditure in 2015-16 was about Rs. 94,000 Cr which is almost double
        the average annual capital expenditure over the previous five-year period of 2009-14





  14. Electrification of 1730 kms done in the last year is a huge jump over 2009-14 annual
        average of 1184 kms





  15. A responsive 24x7 complaint resolution mechanism employed through the use of social
        media





  16. Cleanliness: Swachh Rail, Swachh Bharat campaign, Clean my Coach Service launched,
        third party cleanliness audits conducted for stations





  17. E-catering, E-wheelchair, E-bedroll facilities launched to ensure seamless availability and
        access to these facilities





  18. Ticketing: IRCTC capacity increased, Automatic ticket vending machines installed,
        cancellation of PRS tickets through cell phone launched, Vikalp scheme launched





  19. Speed: India's first semi high speed train Gatimaan Express launched, trial run of Talgo
        coaches underway





  20. N-E Connectivity: Barak Valley of Assam, Agartala, Mizoram and Manipur connected to
        broad gauge





  21. High speed Wi-Fi launched at various stations with a target of 400 stations by 2018





  22. Environment: A provision of 1% of total project cost made in all future projects to spend
        on environment protection measures, major thrust on solar and wind energy provided,
        traditional lights replaced by environment friendly LED lights





  23. 100% E-tendering implemented resulting in transparent and accountable procurement
        process
    24. While I continue my journey on this noble mission of `Transforming India' through
    `Transforming Railways,`I seek your increased participation and support. Together we can make
    the Indian Railways better.










    Proceedings of Indo-Russian Seminar on

    Institutional Reforms and Development Units in

    Transitional Economies

    February 12-13, 2007
    Sponsored by:
    Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), Moscow, Russia
    Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi
    Organised by:
    Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR), Mumbai
    Goregaon (East), Mumbai 400 065, INDIA
    Edited by:
    Vinod K. Sharma, Professor, IGIDR, Mumbai
    O. Malyarov, Chief Research Fellow, RAS, Moscow
    1


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  24. THANKS TO OUR SITE IN CHARGE SHRI GVS ANAND SIR, SHRI V. SHYAM SUNDER SIR , SHRI JKP SIR AND QUALITY AND LAB ASSOCIATES FOR EXTRAORDINARY STEPS .
     


    As CSR Activities Soil analysis has been taken by NFCL in INDIA
     A brief about soil, soil analysis methodologies, Application & critical analysis & Fertilizer Recommendation for Farmers soil.
    Dr. Amar Nath Giri (EHSQ)
    Soil may be defined as a thin layer of earth crust which serves as a natural medium for the growth of the plants. Soil consists of organic matter Soil organisms - Micro flora and Micro fauna.  Soil water Soil air Inorganic matter - Macro nutrients and Micro nutrients Organic Matter the plants and animals grown in weathered material and the organic residues left behind decay with time and become an integral part of the soil. The main source of soil organic matter is plant tissue. Animals are subsidiary source of soil organic matter.  The micro flora like bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes, and micro fauna like protozoa, nematodes, macro fauna like earthworms, ants etc. play an important role in formation of organic matter. The organic matter influences the soil in respect to colour, physical properties, supply of available nutrients and adsorptive capacity. IN NFCL we are considering the significant parameters which is useful to analysis maximum quality of the soil which used to be beneficial to provide real solution for healthy Crop & fruits , cereals, vegetables. 
    Objective of Soil Testing:
                      Appropriate fertilizer dozes used to be recommended on the basis of soil testing such as In Normal soil (pH- 6 to 6.5) all Nitrogenous fertilizer, Super phosphate, Ammonium phosphate etc. can be used. Similarly in the soil having less than 6.00 pH value, Calcium ammonium nitrate, Sodium nitrate, phosphetic fertilizer. Super phosphate, Murate of potash etc can be applied. In the soils having more than 8.5 Ph value, Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Amonium chloride, Super phosphate, Amonium phosphate, Murate of potash etc are recommended. The water logged soils can be applied Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Super phosphate, Ammonium phosphate, Ammonium chloride etc.
    To identify the quantity of organic carbon in the soil is one of the major objectives of soil testing, because growth of crop & availability of nutrients are based on organic carbon. The ratio of organic carbon & nitrogen is 10-12:1. The propagation of useful bacteria also depends on it.
                     Soil testing recommends the ingradiant required reclaiming the acidic soil or saline soils etc. The deficiency of micro element like Znic, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, Iron, Cobalt, Silicon, Manganese & Chlorine etc also adversely affect the crop condition & ultimately the production.
                      In NFCL soil testing laboratories pH, Ec, Organic carbon (as an index of available nitrogen), available phosphorus, and available potassium are estimated. If necessary micro nutrients like Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and B are estimated, Ca, Mg and S are also estimated if any deficiency symptoms are observed on crops. pH (potential of hydrogeni) is estimated by a glass electrode pH meter in 1:2 soil water suspensions. Electrical conductivity is measured by a conductivity meter in 1:2 soil water suspensions. Available nitrogen is estimated by Subbaiah and Asija (1956) method (distillation of soil with alkaline potassium permanganate solution). But in most of the laboratories organic carbon is taken as an index of available nitrogen content of soil assuming C: N ratio is 10. Organic carbon is determined by chromic acid oxidation by rapid titration (Walkley and Black (1934) rapid titration). Phosphorous is determined by Olsen's (1954) using 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate as extracting and phosphorus is analyzed calorimetrically. Neutral normal ammonium acetate solution is the most widely used extractant for available potassium which is analyzed by flame photometer. Micro nutrients are extracted by DTPA and determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer .
                             When land is brought under cropping, grain or fruit and sometimes the entire plants are removed (harvested) from the land. Hence, the soil losses a considerable amount of its nutrients (up take by plants). If cropping is continued over a period of time, without nutrients being restored to the soil, its fertility will be reduced and crop yields will decline. Apart from removal by crops, nutrients may also be lost from the soil through leaching and erosion. Even to maintain soil productivity at the existing levels, it is necessary to restore to the soil, the nutrients removed by crops as also those lost through leaching and erosion.
                       Continued maintenance of a high level of soil fertility is an indispensable for profitable land use and sustained agricultural production. From time to time the inherent fertility of soil has to be evaluated.
    A brief About Indian Soil and its qualification:
    Classification of Indian Soils
                There are 8 major group of soils in India which are furnished below
    Red Soils: Red colour is due to various oxides of iron. They are poor in N, P, K and with pH varying 7 to 7.5. These soils are light textured with porous structure. Lime is absent with low soluble salts. Red soils occur extensively in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Parts of kerala, Maharastra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and West Bengal. Most of the red soils have been classified in the order ' Alfisols'.
    Lateritic Soils
    Seen in high rainfall areas, under high rainfall conditions silica is released and leached down wards and the upper horizons of soils become rich in oxides of iron and aluminium. The texture is light with free drainage structure. Clay is predominant and lime is deficient. pH 5 to 6 with low in base exchange capacity, contained more humus and are well drained. They are distributed in summits of hills of Daccan karnataka, Kerala, Madhyapradesh, Ghat regions of Orissa, Andhra pradesh, Maharastra and also in West Bengal, Tamilnadu and Assam. Most of the laterite soils have bee classified in the order ' ultisols' and a few under ' oxisols'.
    Alluvial Soils
    These are the most important soils from the agriculture point of view. The soils are sandy loam to clay loam with light grey colour to dark colour, structure is loose and more fertile. But the soils are low in NPK and humus. They are well supplied with lime; base exchange capacity is low, pH ranges from 7 to 8. These soils are distributed in Indo-Gangetic plains, Brahmaputra valley and all most all states of North and South. Most of the alluvial soils have been classified in the orders ' Entisols', ' Inceptisols' and ' Alfisols'.
    Black Soils
    This is well known group of soils characterised by dark grey to black colour with high clay content. They are neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction. Deep cracks develop during summer, the depth of the soil varies from less than a meter to several meters. Poor free drainage results in the soils, base exchange is high with high pH and rich in lime and potash. Major black soils are found in Maharastra, Madhyapradesh, Gujarat and Tamilnadu. Cotton is most favorable crop to be grown in these soils. These soils are classified in the order 'Entisols', ' Inceptisols' and ' vertisols'.
    Forest Soils
    This group of soils occur in Himalayas. Soils are dark brown with more sub-soil humus content. They are more acidic.
    Desert Soils
    These soils are mostly sandy to loamy fine sand with brown to yellow brown colour, contains large amounts of soluble salts and lime with pH ranging 8.0 to 8.5. Nitrogen content is very low. The presence of Phosphate and Nitrate make the desert soils fertile and productive under water supply. They are distributed in Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan. They are classified in the order ' Aridisols' and ' Entisols'.
    Peaty and Marshy Soils
    These soils occur in humid regions with accumulation of high organic matter. During monsoons the soils get submerged in water and the water receipts after the monsoon during which period rice is cultivated. Soils are black clay and highly acidic with pH of 3.5. Free alluminium and ferrous sulphate are present. The depressions formed by dried rivers and lakes in alluvial and coastal areas some times give rise to water logged soils and such soils are blue in colour due to the presence of ferrous iron. Peaty soils are found more in Kerala and marshy soils are found more in coastal tracks of Orissa, West Bengal and South - East coast of Tamilnadu.
    Saline - Sodic Soils
    Saline soils contain excess of natural soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulphates which affects plant growth. Sodic or alkali soils contain high exchangeable sodium salts.
    Both kinds of salt effected soils occur in different parts of India like Uttarpradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Maharastra, Tamilnadu, Gujarat, Rajastan and Andhra pradesh. These soils are classified under ' Aridisols', ' Entisols' and ' Vertisols'.
    Classification of Soils In Andhra Pradesh There are five important types of soils in Andhra Pradesh. They are Red soils , Black soils, Alluvial soils , Laterite soils . Saline soils.
    The characters of these soils are same as given under Indian soils.
    Soil degradation
                    Soil degradation involves a number of physical, chemical and biological processes, which may act singly or jointly. In Andhra Pradesh state, soil erosion by water due to intense storms and soils with poor surface structural stability are the most obvious forms of land degradation. The other forms of degradation seen in our state are salinisation, alkalisation, laterisation and inundation of the total area of 18.52 million hectares in 14 districts surveyed so far, 19.6% suffers from soil degradation of one type or the other.
    Current records indicate that 1,14,000 hectares of land are affected by water logging and salinity in Guntur and Prakasam districts under the Nagarjuna sagar Right Bank Canal Command. More than 60,000 hectares are alkaline in the districts of Anantapur, Kurnool, Medak, Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar.
    Salt affliction in soils may occur as a result of a variety of causes, namely, capillary rise from subsoil containing salt, indiscriminate use of canal water for irrigation, weathering of rocks in salts transported by rivers from upstream regions to plains, salt impregnated sands transported by coastal winds, in-site decomposition of soil minerals and intrusion of sea water. The extent of saline and alkaline tracts in irrigated areas (under canal and tank or reservoir command areas) is about 5,30,000 hectares.

    Response:
    Unfortunately, the response to the changes in soils leading to degradation has been painfully slow. Nonetheless, systematic watershed development and command area development programmes have earnestly attempted to set matters right. Some steps have also been taken to rationalise energy and water use through tariff structure. The present infrastructure of seven research stations in different agro climatic zones in the state by the Department of Agriculture helps in monitoring the changes in soil content but needs further strengthening by way of interlocking with Agricultural Universities, Non-governmental organizations , Fertilizer Industries  Experts and Institutions.
    As industry & Nutrient solution provider in INDIA as Eco-efficient way for best plant growth, good soil health & maximum utilization of fertilizer by the plant and least environmental effects NFCL is day by day improving the Quality of UREA & other fertilizers and asking soil sample from farmers all over INDIA for analysis  & best Soil recommendation provider.
        There are different methods for soil fertility evaluation as listed below: Soil Test Interpretation and Fertilizer Recommendations
                            From the results of analysis of soil samples sent by the farmer and information sheet supplied by him, soil test reports are prepared in the laboratories. Copies of these reports are sent to the concerned farmer.
                            Soil test reports are usually in three main parts. First part indicates results of analyses of the soil sample. Most laboratories give actual analyses as well as the ratings. Second part is fertilizer recommendations for the crop based on soil analyses, history of the field like cropping pattern, manures and fertilizers earlier applied, etc. This part indicates quantities of nitrogen (N), Phosphate ( P205), Potash(K20), Zinc (Where facilities exist ) and also of lime or gypsum to be applied per hectare.
                           The third part of the report usually indicates time and methods of fertilizer application and other practices required to make the fertilizer use more efficient.
    During the relatively short period that soil testing service has been in operation in this country a large number of soil samples have been analyzed in various laboratories. Based on the results of these analyses , soil fertility maps have been prepared indicating the nutrient status of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and zinc in different parts of the country. It must however, be noted that this is only a broad classification , since it is based on limited soil sample analysis.
    Soil Composition
    Soil Organisms: Soil is the habitat for enormous number of living organisms. Some of these organisms are visible to naked eye where as others can be seen by microscope only. Roots of higher plants are considered as soil macro flora while bacteria, fungi, algae and actinomycetes are considered as soil micro flora. Protozoa and nematodes are the significant soil micro fauna where as the earthworms, moles and ants constitutes soil macro fauna.
    Soil Water: In order to function as a medium for plant growth, soil must contain some water. The main functions of water in the soil are as follows:
    Promotes many physical and biological activities of soil.
    Acts as a solvent and carrier of nutrients.
    As a nutrient itself.
    Acts as an agent in photosynthesis process.
    Maintains turgidity of plants.
    Acts as an agent in weathering of rocks and minerals.
    Soil Air
    Oxygen is essential for all biological reactions occurring in soil. Its requirement is met from the soil air. The gaseous phase of soil acts as a path way for intake of oxygen which is absorbed by soil micro organisms, plant roots and for escape of carbondioxide produced by the plants.
    This two way process is called soil aeration. Soil aeration become critical for the plant growth when water content is high, because water replaces soil air.
    Soil Inorganic Matter
    The inorganic constituents of the soil comprises carbonates, soluble salts, free oxides of iron, aluminium and silica in addition to some amorphous silicates. The inorganic constituents form the bulk of the solid phase of the soil. Soils having more than 20% of the organic constituents are designated as organic soils.
    Soil pH
    The negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H +) concentration is called pH. Soil pH may be acidic, basic or neutral.
    Soil Fertility
    Soil fertility deals with the nutrient status or ability of soil to supply nutrients for plant growth under favorable environmental conditions such as light, temperature and physical conditions of soil.
    Soil Productivity
    Soil productivity is defined as the capability of the soil for producing a specified quantity of plant produce per unit area and the ability to produce sequence of crops under a specified system of management.
    Problem Soils
    The soils which owe characteristics that they can not be economically used for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils.
    Acid Soils
    Those soils with pH less than 6.5 and which respond to liming may be considered as acid soils.
    Reasons for Acidity  Humus decomposition results in release of large amounts of acids. There by lowering the pH.  
    Rainfall: In areas with more than 100 cm rainfall associated with high R.H., Ca, Mg is dissolved in water and leached out due to this base saturation of soil decreases. Application of elemental sulphur under goes reactions resulting in formation of H2SO4.
    Continuous application of acid forming fertilizers like ammonium sulphates or ammonium chlorides results in depletion of Ca by CEC (cation exchange capacity) phenomenon. Parent Material : Generally rocks are considered as acidic, which contain large amount of silica (Si O2) when this combined with water, acidity increases.
    Characteristics : PH is less than 6.5
    This soils are open textured with high massive Structure. Low in Ca, Mg with negligible amount of soluble salts.  These soils appear as brown or reddish brown, sandy loams or sands. Injury to Crops
    Direct Affects
    Plant root system does not grow normally due to toxic hydrogen ions. Permeability of plant membranes are adversely affected due to soil acidity. Enzyme actions may be altered, since they are sensitive to PH changes.
    Indirect Affects
    Deficiency of Ca and Mg occur by leaching. Al, Mn and Fe available in toxic amounts. All the micro nutrients except molybdenum are available. So 'Mo' deficiency has been identified in leguminous crops. Phosphorous gets immobilized and its availability is reduced.  Actvity of Micro Organisms  Most of the activities of beneficial organisms like Azatobacter and nodule forming bacteria of legumes are adversely effected as acidity increases.  Crops Suitable For
    Cultivation in Acid Soils
    Amelioration
    Lime as reclaiming agent : Lime is added to neutralize acidity and to increase the PH, so that the availability of nutrients will be increased. Basic slag obtained from Iron and steel industry can be substituted for lime. It contains about 48-54% of CaO and 3-4% MgO. Ammonium sulphate and Ammonium chloride should not be applied to acid soils but urea can be applied. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) is suitable to acid soils. Any citrate soluble phosphate fertilizer is good source of phosphorous for acid soils. Eg. Dicalcium phosphate (DCP), Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) Potassium sulphate is a suitable source of 'K' for acid soils. But MOP is better than K2So4 because Cl of MOP replaces -OH ions, their by release of -OH ions tends to increase the PH.
    Alkaline Soils :
    Alkali soils are formed due to concentration of exchangeable sodium and high pH. Because of high alkalinity resulting from sodium carbonate the surface soil is discoloured to black; hence the term black alkali is used.
    Reasons for Alkalinity
    The excessive irrigation of uplands containing Na salts results in the accumulation of salts in the valleys. In arid and semi arid areas salt formed during weathering are not fully leached.
    In coastal areas if the soil contains carbonates the ingression of sea water leads to the formation of alkali soils due to formation of sodium carbonates. Irrigated soils with poor drainage.
    Characteristics
    Injury to Crops
    High exchangeable sodium decreases the availability of calcium, magnesium to plants. Dispersion of soil particles due to high exchangeable 'Na' leads to poor physical condition of soil, low permeability to water and air, tends to be sticky when wet and becomes hard on drying.
    Toxicity due to excess hydroxyl and carbonate ions. Growth of plant gets affected mainly due to nutritional imbalance. Restricted root system and delay in flowering in sensitive varieties.
    Typical leaf burn in annuals and woody plants due to excess of chloride and sodium.
    Bronzing of leaves in citrus. It effects the solubility of zinc( Zn). Crops Suitable for Cultivation in Alkaline Soils Barley, Sugarbeet, Cotton, Sugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram, Greengram, Sunflower, Linseed, Sesame, Bajra, Sorghum, Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bitterguard. Beetroot, Guava, Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.
    Amelioration
    The process of amelioration consists of two steps. To convert exchangeable sodium into water soluble form. To leach out the soluble sodium from the field. Amendments used for reclamation of Alkali soils.
    Gypsum
    It is slightly soluble in water. So it should be applied well in advance.
    Requrement
    For every 1 m.e of exchangeable Na per 100 gm of soil, 1.7 tonns of Gypsum/ acre is to be added.
    Application
    Saline Soils
    The saline soils contains toxic concentration of soluble salts in the root zone. Soluble salts consists of chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium. Because of the white encrustation formed due to salts, the saline soils are also called white alkali soils.
    Reasons For Salinity
    In arid and semi arid areas salts formed during weathering are not fully leached. During the periods of higher rainfall the soluble salts are leached from the more permeable high laying areas to low laying areas and where ever the drainage is restricted, salts accumulate on the soil surface, as water evaporates
    The excessive irrigation of uplands containing salts results in the accumulation of salts in the valleys. In areas having salt layer at lower depths in the profile, seasonal irrigation may favour the upward movement of salts. Salinity is also caused if the soils are irrigated with saline water.  In coastal areas the ingress of sea water induces salinity in the soil.
    Characteristics
    Injury to Crops
                    High osmotic pressure decreases the water availability to plants hence retardation of growth rate. As a result of retarded growth rate, leaves and stems of affected plants are stunted. Development of thicker layer of surface wax imparts bluish green tinge on leaves Due to high EC germination % of seeds is reduced.
    Crops Suitable For Cultivation In Saline Soils
    Barley, Sugarbeet, Cotton, Sugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram, Greengram, Sunflower, Linseed, Sesame, Bajra, Sorghum, Tomato, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bitterguard. Beetroot, Guava, Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.
    Amelioration
    The salts are to be leached below the root zone and not allowed to come up. However this practice is some what difficult in deep and fine textured soils containing more salts in the lower layers. Under these conditions a provision of some kind of sub-surface drains becomes important.
    The required area is to be made into smaller plots and each plot should be bounded to hold irrigation water.
    Separate irrigation and drainage channels are to be provided for each plot. Plots are to be flooded with good quality water upto 15 - 20 cms and puddled. Thus, soluble salts will be dissolved in the water.  The excess water with dissolved salts is to be removed into the drainage channels.
    Flooding and drainage are to be repeated 5 or 6 times till the soluble salts are leached from the soil to a safer limit.  Green manure crops like Daincha can be grown upto flowering stage and incorporated into the soil. Paddy straw can also be used.
    Super phosphate, Ammonium sulphate or Urea can be applied in the last puddle. MOP and Ammonium chlorides should not be used.
    Scrape the salt layer on the surface of the soil with spade.
    Grow salt tolerant crops like sugar beet, tomato, beet root, barley etc
    Before sowing, the seeds are to be treated by soaking the seeds in 0.1% salt solution for 2 to 3 hours.
    If the requirement is 3 tonnes/ acre- apply in one dose.
    If the requirement is 3 to 5 tonnes/acre- apply in 2 split doses.
    If the requirement is 5 or more tonnes/ acre - apply in 3 split doses.
    Use of Pyrites (Fe S2)
    Sulphur present in pyrites causes decrease in pH of soil due to formation of H2SO4.
    H2So4 + Ca Co3 -- Ca S04 Ca So4 + Na --- Na So4 + Ca ( leachable)
    Application of sulphur. Application of molasses. Drainage channels must be arranged around the field. Growing the green manure crops and incorporate in the field.
    Objectives of Soil Testing - The objectives of soil testing area as follows:
    To estimate the available nutrient status, reaction (acidic/alkaline) of a soil. To evaluate the fertility status of soils of a country or a state or a district.
    By soil test summaries the fertility status i.e., available nitrogen status or available phosphorous status or available potassium status expressed as HIGH, MEDIUM or LOW. Delineating areas of nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) sufficiency or areas of nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) deficiency, Determining nutrient (e.g.,N, P, K) requirement for the deficient areas etc.      3. to prepare a basis for fertilizer recommendation, lime recommendation or gypsum recommendation.
                        The main purpose of soil testing is to evaluate the fertility status of the soil. It provides a basis for fertilizer, lime and gypsum recommendation. Laboratory test is a means of making an inventory of the chemical conditions of soil and determining treatments, if any, are needed.This service is generally rendered free of cost Under Social Corporate Responsibility. Attachments –Annexure 1. In the soil testing laboratory, soil samples are analyzed for the following five individual soil properties: pH or soil reaction which indicates whether the soil is acidic, alkaline or normal
    Total soluble salts which indicates whether the soil is saline or normal:
    Organic carbon (as a measures of available nitrogen)
    Available phosphorus
    Available potash
    Fertilizer Recommendation
    Analysis Procedure AnneXure -2
    Rating of Soil Test Results- On the basis of soil test results, the soils are grouped into different categories. The categories with respect to organic carbon, available PO, KO and N are a follows:
    Categories
    Organic Carbon (%)
    Available N (kg ha-)
    Available PO (kg ha-)
    Available KO (kg ha-)
    High
       Above 1.5
       Above 450
       Above 90
      Above 340
    Medium
       0.75-1.5
       280-450
       45-90
      150-340
    Low
     Up to  0.75
      Below 280
     Below 45
    Below 150
    The categories of soils with respect to soil pH are as follows:
    Soil pH
    Categories
    Conductivity
    Categories
    Below 5.5
    Acid
    Below 1
    Normal
    5.5-6.5
    Slightly acid
    1 - 2
    Critical for germination
    6.5-7.5
    Neutral
    2 -.3
    Critical for growth of salt-sensitive crops
    7.5-8.5
    Tending to become alkali
    Above 3
    Injurious to most crops
    Above 8.5
    Alkali
    Ratings of soil test parameters
    Quadratic Response Equation
    Y = A + b1SN + b2SN2 + b3 SP + b4SP2 + b5SK + B6SK2 + b7FN + b8FN2 + b9FP + b10FP2 + b11FK + b12FK2 + b13FNSN + b14FPSP + b15FKSK
    Where,
    Y = Crop Yield (kg/ha)
    A = Intercept
    bi = Regression coefficients (kg/ha)
    SN, SP, SK = Soil available N, P and K (kg/ha) respectively
    FN, FP, FK = Fertiliser N, P and K (kg/ha) respectively


    Mitcherlich-Bray equation
    Availble Nutrient
    High
    Low
    Medium
    N(Nitrogen)
    63.10%
    25.57%
    11.33%
    P(Phosphorous)
    42.33%
    37.66%
    20.01%
    K(Potassium)
    12.93%
    36.65%
    50.42%
    Log (A-Y) = Log A - c1b - cx
    Where,
    A = theoretical maximum yield
    b = native soil nutrient
    Y = yield obtained
    x = added fertiliser
    c1 = efficiency factor for soil nutrient
    c = efficiency factor for added nutrient
    Target Yield Equation
    FD = NR/CF *100*T -CS/CF*STV
    Where,
    FD = Fertiliser N or P2O5 or K2O (kg/ha)
    NR = Nutrient requirement of N or P2O5 or K2O (kg/t)
    CF = Contribution from fertiliser N or P2O5 or K2O (%)
    CS = Contribution from soil N or P2O5 or K2O (%)
    STV = Soil test value of N or P X 2.29 or K X 1.21 (kg/ha)
    Conception of Soil Testing
    In most of the soil testing laboratories in India, the soil pH, electrical conductivity, oxidizable organic carbon, available nitrogen, available phosphorous and available potassium are determined by chemical analytical methods within a short period. Hence, Soil testing is the rapid chemical analysis of a soil to estimate the available nutrient status, reaction and salinity of the soil.
    Method of Collection of Soil Samples - Collection for field crops
    Equipments
    Spade
    Polythene bucket
    12 inches scale
    Ball point pen/Lead pencil
    A sheet of thick paper
    Polythene sheet (2ft x 2ft)
    Procedure
    Determine the soil unit (or plot).
    Make a traverse over the soil unit (or plot).
    Clean the site (with spade) from where soil sample is to be collected.
    Insert the spade into soil.
    Standing on opposite side, again insert the spade into soil.
    A lump of soil is removed.
    A pit of vee (V) shape is formed. Its depth should be 0-6" or 0-9" or 0-12". (i.e., depth of tillage).
    Take out the soil-slice (like bread-slice) of ½ inch thick from both the exposed surface of the pit from top to bottom. This slice is also termed furrow-slice. To collect the soil-slice spade may be used. Collect the soil samples in a polythene bucket.
    Collect furrow-slices from 8-10 or sometimes 20-30 sites. Select the sites at random in a zigzag (or criss-cross) manner. Distribute the sites throughout the entire soil unit (plot). In lieu of spade auger may be used. Do not take the prohibited samples and local problem soils.
    Furnish the following information in two sheets of thick paper with the sample. One sheet is folded and kept inside the bag. Another sheet is folded and attached with the bag.
    Informations
    Name and address of the farmer (or farm owner).
    Name of the block.
    Plot number or any other number that identifies the plot (or Soil unit).
    Soil texture (sandy/clay/loam).
    Availability of irrigation facilities.
    Availability of drainage system.
    Upland/Mediumland/Lowland.
    Depth of soil sample.
    Information of the previous crop.
    Name and variety of the crop.
    Dose of organic manure, if applied.
    Dose of fertilizers, if applied.
    Yield.
    Informations of the crop that will be grown.
    Name and variety of the crop.
    Season (pre Kharif/Kharif/rabi).
    Problem, if any.
    Date of sample collection.
    Signature of the farmer (or farm owner).
    Collection for plantation crop
    Dig a well (pit) of 1.8 meter depth. (Depth may vary depending on root-depth).
    Collect the soil-slice of ½ inch thick from the exposed surface of pit at different depths as follows: 0-15, 15-30, 30-60, 60-90, 90-120, 120-150 and 150-180 cm.
    Collection for local problem soils - Local problem soils are treated as separate soil units (plots). Hence, separate composite samples are collected from problem soils. The problem soil samples are not mixed with normal soils (i.e., non problem soils).  Both surface soil and subsoil samples are collected.
    fThe categories of soils with respect to conductivity (total soluble salts) in mmhos/cm (dSm-1) followed are as follows:
    Parameters
    Details
    pH
    more than 8.3
    EC
    Less than 4 m.mhos/ cm
    ESP
    More than 15
    Chemistry of soil solution
    Dominated by carbonate and bicarbonate ions and high exchangeable sodium.
    Effect of electrolyte on soil particles
    Dispersion due to high amount of exchangeable sodium
    Adverse effect on Plant
    Alkalinity of soil solution
    Geographic distribution
    Semi arid and semi humid - areas.
    Diagnosis under field condition
    Presence of dispersed soil surface. Columnar structures present in the sub-soil


    Parameters
    Details
    PH
    Less than 8.3
    Ec
    More than 4.0 m.mhos/ cm
    ESP (exchangeable sodium %)
    Less than 15
    Chemistry of soil solution
    Dominated by sulphate and chloride ions and low in exchangeable sodium
    Effect of electrolytes on soil particles
    Flocculation due to excess soluble salts.
    Main effect on plant
    High osmotic pressure of soil solution
    Geographic distribution
    Arid and semi arid regions.
    Diagnosis under field condition
    Presence of white crust
    Presence of chloris barborata(weed)
    Patchy growth of plants.
    Analysis Procedure Annezure -2
    pH-(potentia of hydorgenii), EC, OC ( Organic carbon), Phosphorus As P2O5, Potassium as K2O.
    Potassium
    Along with N and P, potassium (K) is also of vital importance in crop production. Most soils contain relatively large amounts of total K (1 - 2%) as components of relatively insoluble minerals, however, only a small fraction (about 1%) is present in a form available to plants, i.e., water-soluble and exchangeable K. Highly weathered acid soils (of tropical regions) are more frequently deficient in plant available K, whereas soils of arid and semi-arid areas tend to be well supplied with K.
    Nevertheless, extractable-K, or exchangeable plus water-soluble K, is often considered the plant-available fraction and is routinely measured in the region's laboratories. Water-soluble K tends to be a large proportion of the extractable K fraction in drier-region soils.
    Where levels of extractable-K values are less than 100 to 150 ppm; K deficiency is likely and fertilization is required to maximize crop production with irrigation or high K  requiring crops, the critical level should be even higher.
    1 Extractable Potassium
    This fraction of soil K is the sum of water-soluble and exchangeable K. The method uses a neutral salt solution to replace the cations present on the soil exchange complex; therefore, the cation concentration determined by this method are referred to as "exchangeable" for non-calcareous soils. For calcareous soils, the cations are referred to as "exchangeable plus soluble" (Richards, 1954).
    Apparatus
    Flame photometer with accessories.Centrifuge, capable of 3000 rmp.Mechanical shaker, reciprocating.
    Reagents
    A. Ammonium Acetate Solution (NH4OAc), 1 N
    • Add 57 mL concentrated acetic acid (CH3COOH) to 800 mL DI water, and then add 68 mL concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), mix well, and let the mixture cool.
    Adjust to pH 7.0 by adding more acetic acid or ammonium hydroxide, and bring to 1-L volume with DI water.
    B. Standard Stock Solution
    • Dry about 3 g potassium chloride (KCl) in an oven at 120°C for 1 – 2 hours and cool in a desiccator, and store in a tightly stoppered bottle.
    • Dissolve 1.907 g dried potassium chloride in DI water, and bring to 1-L volume with DI water. This solution contains 1000 ppm K (Stock Solution).
    • Prepare a series of Standard Solutions from the Stock Solution as follows: Dilute 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15 and 20 mL Stock Solution to 100-mL final volume of each by adding DI water or 1 N ammonium acetate solution. These solutions contain 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, and 200 ppm K, respectively.
    Note
    Standard solutions for measuring soluble-K should be prepared in DI water, but for measuring extractable-K the standards should be made in ammonium acetate solution.
    Procedure
    1. Weigh 5 g air-dry soil (< 2-mm) into a 50-mL centrifuge tube, add 33 mL ammonium acetate solution, and shake for 5 minutes on a shaker. The tubes should be stoppered with a clean rubber or polyethylene stopper, but not corks, which may introduce errors.
    2. Centrifuge until the supernatant liquid is clear and collect the extract in a 100- mL volumetric flask through a filter paper to exclude any soil particles. Repeat this process two more times and collect the extract each time.
    3. Dilute the combined ammonium acetate extracts to 100 mL with 1 N ammonium acetate solution.
    4. Run a series of suitable potassium standards, and draw a calibration curve.
    5. Measure the samples (soil extracts), and take the emission readings on a Flame Photometer at 767-nm wavelength.
    6. Calculate potassium (K) concentrations according to the calibration curve.
    CALCULATION
    For Extractable Potassium in soil:
    Where: A = Total volume of the extract (mL)
    Wt = Weight of air-dry soil (g)
    2 Soluble Potassium
    This fraction is a measure of the amount of K extracted from the soil by water.
    Procedure
    1. Weigh 5 g air-dry soil (<2 mm) into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask, add 100 mL DI water, and shake for 1 hour.
    2. Filter and measure soluble-K on a Flame Photometer.
    CALCULATION
    A Extractable K (ppm) = ppm K (from calibration curve) × .... Wt
    A Soluble K (ppm) = ppm K (from calibration curve) × ... Wt
    For Soluble Potassium in soil:
    3 Exchangeable Potassium
    Exchangeable K, or that held on the exchange sites or surfaces of clay minerals, is normally the dominant portion of total extractable K. It can be deduced by difference. For Exchangeable Potassium in soil:
    Note
    1. Exchangeable sodium (Na), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) can be measured in the same way as derived for exchangeable potassium (K). Extractable-Na, Ca, and Mg are measured in the ammonium acetate extract and soluble Na, Ca, and Mg in the water extract. The difference will represent exchangeable Na, Ca, and Mg.
    2. A range of 20 to 200 ppm of Na standards may be prepared in ammonium acetate solution for extractable Na and in de-ionized water for soluble Na.
    3. After extraction, the filtrate containing K, Mg, Ca and Na should not be stored for  longer than 24 hours unless it is refrigerated or treated to prevent bacterial growth.
    4. Soils can be stored in an air-dry condition for several months without any
    Exchangeable K (ppm) = Extractable K (ppm) - Soluble (ppm) ....... (40)
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  26. Why Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) at 5 days??


    BOD or “Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand” is an important factor which describes us how pure the given water sample is. It represents the amount of “Dissolved Oxygen“ consumed by microbes to convert the organics present to carbon dioxide and water. Higher the BOD value higher is the water polluted. A sample of water with lesser BOD value is less polluted than a one with much higher value.
    * Generally as per global standards BOD value of sample at 5 days which incubated at 20 degrees Celsius is represented as the standard BOD of the sample. The reason for taking 5 days BOD as standard is due to the following fact:
    The “Dissolved Oxygen” present in water gets used for the decomposition of organic matter as well as nitrogenous matter.
    From the combined BOD curve, we have two oxygen demands: 1. Carbonaceous BOD (initial) , 2. Nitrogenous BOD (final).

    The first 5 days demand is the “Carbonaceous Bio Chemical Oxygen Demand” which accounts for 68% of the total BOD value. Hence taking the value of 5 days BOD as a standard one represents the oxygen demand for the decomposition of organic matter only.
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