I.
Introduction
Some occupational diseases have been
recognized for many years, and affect workers in different ways depending on the
nature of the hazard, the route of exposure, the dose, etc. Some well known
occupational diseases include:
V. The importance of training
VII. Summary
Exercise.
Identifying hazards in the workplace
What is occupational
health and safety?
Occupational health and
safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialized fields. In
its broadest sense, it should aim at:
- the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations;
- the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working conditions;
- the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health;
- the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to physical and mental needs;
- the adaptation of work to humans.
In other words,
occupational health and safety encompasses the social, mental and physical
well-being of workers, that is the “whole person”.
Successful occupational
health and safety practice requires the collaboration and participation of both
employers and workers in health and safety programmes, and involves the
consideration of issues relating to occupational medicine, industrial hygiene,
toxicology, education, engineering safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.
Occupational health
issues are often given less attention than occupational safety issues
because the former are generally more difficult to confront. However, when
health is addressed, so is safety, because a healthy workplace is by definition
also a safe workplace. The converse, though, may not be true - a so-called safe
workplace is not necessarily also a healthy workplace. The important point is
that issues of both health and safety must be addressed in every
workplace. By and large, the definition of occupational health and safety
given above encompasses both health and safety in their broadest
contexts.
Poor working conditions
affect worker health and safety
- Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's health and safety.
- Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to factories — they can be found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors. For many workers, such as agricultural workers or miners, the workplace is “outdoors” and can pose many health and safety hazards.
- Poor working conditions can also affect the environment workers live in, since the working and living environments are the same for many workers. This means that occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their families, and other people in the community, as well as on the physical environment around the workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides in agricultural work. Workers can be exposed to toxic chemicals in a number of ways when spraying pesticides: they can inhale the chemicals during and after spraying, the chemicals can be absorbed through the skin, and the workers can ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke without first washing their hands, or if drinking water has become contaminated with the chemicals. The workers' families can also be exposed in a number of ways: they can inhale the pesticides which may linger in the air, they can drink contaminated water, or they can be exposed to residues which may be on the worker's clothes. Other people in the community can all be exposed in the same ways as well. When the chemicals get absorbed into the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, the adverse effects on the natural environment can be permanent.
Overall, efforts in
occupational health and safety must aim to prevent industrial accidents
and diseases, and at the same time recognize the connection between worker
health and safety, the workplace, and the environment outside the workplace.
Why is occupational
health and safety important?
Work plays a central role
in people's lives, since most workers spend at least eight hours a day in the
workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office, factory, etc. Therefore,
work environments should be safe and healthy. Yet this is not the case for many
workers. Every day workers all over the world are faced with a multitude of
health hazards, such as:
- dusts;
- gases;
- noise;
- vibration;
- extreme temperatures.
Unfortunately some
employers assume little responsibility for the protection of workers' health and
safety. In fact, some employers do not even know that they have the moral and
often legal responsibility to protect workers. As a result of the hazards and a
lack of attention given to health and safety, work-related accidents and
diseases are common in all parts of the world.
Costs of occupational
injury/disease
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How much does an occupational disease or accident cost?  |
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Work-related accidents or
diseases are very costly and can have many serious direct and indirect effects
on the lives of workers and their families. For workers some of the
direct costs of an injury or illness are:
- the pain and suffering of the injury or illness;
- the loss of income;
- the possible loss of a job;
- health-care costs.
It has been estimated that
the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four to ten times
greater than the direct costs, or even more. An occupational illness or accident
can have so many indirect costs to workers that it is often difficult to measure
them. One of the most obvious indirect costs is the human suffering caused to
workers' families, which cannot be compensated with money.
The costs to
employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated to be
enormous. For a small business, the cost of even one accident can be a financial
disaster. For employers, some of the direct costs are:
- payment for work not performed;
- medical and compensation payments;
- repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
- reduction or a temporary halt in production;
- increased training expenses and administration costs;
- possible reduction in the quality of work;
- negative effect on morale in other workers.
Some of the indirect
costs for employers are:
- the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
- a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
- it takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the original worker;
- time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of reports and filling out of forms;
- accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour relations in a negative way;
- poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public relations.
Overall, the costs of most
work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their families and to
employers are very high.
On a national scale, the
estimated costs of occupational accidents and illnesses can be as high as three
to four per cent of a country's gross national product. In reality, no one
really knows the total costs of work-related accidents or diseases because there
are a multitude of indirect costs which are difficult to measure besides the
more obvious direct costs.
Health and safety
programmes
For all of the reasons
given above, it is crucial that employers, workers and unions are committed to
health and safety and that:
- workplace hazards are controlled - at the source whenever possible;
- records of any exposure are maintained for many years;
- both workers and employers are informed about health and safety risks in the workplace;
- there is an active and effective health and safety committee that includes both workers and management;
- worker health and safety efforts are ongoing.
Effective workplace health
and safety programmes can help to save the lives of workers by reducing hazards
and their consequences. Health and safety programmes also have positive effects
on both worker morale and productivity, which are important benefits. At the
same time, effective programmes can save employers a great deal of money.
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Points to remember |
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In general, health and
safety in the workplace has improved in most industrialized countries
over the past 20 to 30 years. However, the situation in developing countries is
relatively unclear largely because of inadequate accident and disease
recognition, record-keeping and reporting mechanisms.
It is estimated that at
least 250 million occupational accidents occur every year worldwide. 335,000 of
these accidents are fatal (result in death). (Since many countries do not have
accurate record-keeping and reporting mechanisms, it can be assumed that the
real figures are much higher than this.) The number of fatal accidents is much
higher in developing countries than in industrialized ones. This difference is
primarily due to better health and safety programmes, improved first-aid and
medical facilities in the industrialized countries, and to active participation
of workers in the decision-making process on health and safety issues. Some of
the industries with the highest risk of accidents worldwide are: mining,
agriculture, including forestry and logging, and construction.
Identifying the cause of an
accident
In some cases, the cause of
an industrial injury is easy to identify. However, very often there is a hidden
chain of events behind the accident which led up to the injury. For example,
accidents are often indirectly caused by negligence on the part of the employer
who may not have provided adequate worker training, or a supplier who gave the
wrong information about a product, etc. The consistently high fatal accident
rates in developing countries emphasize the need for occupational health and
safety education programmes that focus on prevention. It is equally important to
promote the development of occupational health services, including the training
of doctors to recognize work-related diseases in the early stages.
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Exposure to hazards in the workplace can lead to serious illness. |
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- asbestosis (caused by asbestos, which is common in insulation, automobile brake linings, etc.);
- silicosis (caused by silica, which is common in mining, sandblasting, etc.);
- lead poisoning (caused by lead, which is common in battery plants, paint factories, etc.);
- and noise-induced hearing loss (caused by noise, which is common in many workplaces, including airports, and workplaces where noisy machines, such as presses or drills, etc. are used).
There are also a number of
potentially crippling health problems that can be associated with poor working
conditions, including:
- heart disease;
- musculoskeletal disorders such as permanent back injuries or muscle disorders;
- allergies;
- reproductive problems;
- stress-related disorders.
Many developing countries
report only a small number of workers affected by work-related diseases. These
numbers look small for a variety of reasons that include:
- inadequate or non-existent reporting mechanisms;
- a lack of occupational health facilities;
- a lack of health care practitioners who are trained to recognize work-related diseases.
Because of these reasons
and others, it is fair to assume that in reality, the numbers of workers
afflicted with occupational diseases are much higher. In fact, overall, the
number of cases and types of occupational diseases are increasing, not
decreasing, in both developing and industrialized countries.
Identifying the cause of
occupational disease
The cause of work-related
diseases is very often difficult to determine. One factor is the latency period
(the fact that it may take years before the disease produces an obvious
effect on the worker's health). By the time the disease is identified, it may be
too late to do anything about it or to find out what hazards the worker was
exposed to in the past. Other factors such as changing jobs, or personal
behaviours (such as smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol) further increase the
difficulty of linking workplace exposures to a disease outcome.
Although more is understood
now about some occupational hazards than in the past, every year new chemicals
and new technologies are being introduced which present new and often unknown
hazards to both workers and the community. These new and unknown hazards present
great challenges to workers, employers, educators, and scientists, that is to
everyone concerned about workers' health and the effects that hazardous agents
have on the environment.
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Points to remember about |
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There is an unlimited
number of hazards that can be found in almost any workplace. There are obvious
unsafe working conditions, such as unguarded machinery, slippery floors or
inadequate fire precautions, but there are also a number of categories of
insidious hazards (that is, those hazards that are dangerous but which may not
be obvious) including:
- chemical hazards, arising from liquids, solids, dusts, fumes, vapours and gases;
- physical hazards, such as noise, vibration, unsatisfactory lighting, radiation and extreme temperatures;
- biological hazards, such as bacteria, viruses, infectious waste and infestations;
- psychological hazards resulting from stress and strain;
- hazards associated with the non-application of ergonomic principles, for example badly designed machinery, mechanical devices and tools used by workers, improper seating and workstation design, or poorly designed work practices.
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Hazards are often built into workplace. |
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Work processes can be designed to prevent accidents and illnesses. Existing hazards should be removed from the workplace. |
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Workers do not create
hazards - in many cases the hazards are built into the workplace. The trade
union position on occupational health and safety is to ensure that work is made
safer by modifying the workplace and any unsafe work processes. This means that
the solution is to remove the hazards, not to try to get workers to adapt
to unsafe conditions. Requiring workers to wear protective clothing which may
not be suited or designed for the climate of your region is an example of
forcing workers to try to adapt themselves to unsafe conditions, which is also
shifting the responsibility from management to the worker.
It is important for unions
to maintain this position because many employers blame workers when there is an
accident, claiming that the workers were careless. This attitude implies that
work can be made safer if workers change their behaviour or if employers only
hire workers who never make mistakes. Everyone makes mistakes — it is human
nature, but workers should not pay for mistakes with their lives. Accidents do
not stop simply by making workers more safety conscious. Safety awareness may
help but it does not remove unsafe work processes or conditions. The most
effective accident and disease prevention begins when work processes are still
in the design stage, when safe conditions can be built into the work
process.
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Points to remember |
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A successful health and safety programme requires strong management commitment and worker participation. |
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In order to develop a
successful health and safety programme, it is essential that there be strong
management commitment and strong worker participation in the effort to create
and maintain a safe and healthy workplace. An effective management addresses all
work-related hazards, not only those covered by government standards.
All levels of management
must make health and safety a priority. They must communicate this by going out
into the worksite to talk with workers about their concerns and to observe work
procedures and equipment. In each workplace, the lines of responsibility from
top to bottom need to be clear, and workers should know who is responsible for
different health and safety issues.
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Points to remember
about the importance of management commitment
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Effective training is a key component of any health and safety programme. |
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Workers often experience
work-related health problems and do not realize that the problems are related to
their work, particularly when an occupational disease, for example, is in the
early stages. Besides the other more obvious benefits of training, such as
skills development, hazard recognition, etc., a comprehensive training programme
in each workplace will help workers to:
- recognize early signs/symptoms of any potential occupational diseases before they become permanent conditions;
- assess their work environment;
- insist that management make changes before hazardous conditions can develop.
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A comprehensive health and
safety training programme in each workplace will, among other more obvious
benefits, help workers to recognize any early signs/symptoms of potential
occupational diseases before they become permanent conditions, to assess their
work environment, and to insist that management make changes before hazardous
conditions can develop.
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Health and safety representative |
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As health and safety
representative your role is to work proactively (this means taking action
before hazards become a problem) to prevent workers from being exposed to
occupational hazards. You can do this by making sure management eliminates
hazards or keeps them under control when they cannot be eliminated.
Steps to help you reach
your goals are:
1. Be well informed about
the various hazards in your workplace and the possible solutions for controlling
those hazards.
2. Work together with your
union and the employer to identify and control hazards.
3. Although these Modules
have been developed for the protection of workers, you may occasionally need to
share some of this information with your supervisors and employer in the process
of working towards a safe and healthy workplace.
Being a health and
safety representative is not always easy, but helping to protect the lives of
your fellow workers is worth all the time and effort you put into the job.
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Use a variety of sources for information about potential or existing hazards in your workplace. |
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Workers in every occupation
can be faced with a multitude of hazards in the workplace. Occupational health
and safety addresses the broad range of workplace hazards from accident
prevention to the more insidious hazards including toxic fumes, dust, noise,
heat, stress, etc. Preventing work-related diseases and accidents must be the
goal of occupational health and safety programmes, rather than attempting to
solve problems after they have already developed.
Hazards in the workplace
can be found in a variety of forms, including chemical, physical, biological,
psychological, non-application of ergonomic principles, etc. Because of the
multitude of hazards in most workplaces and the overall lack of attention given
to health and safety by many employers, work-related accidents and diseases
continue to be serious problems in all parts of the world. Therefore, trade
unions must insist that employers control hazards at the source and not force
workers to adapt to unsafe conditions.
Management commitment to
health and safety and strong worker participation are two essential elements of
any successful workplace health and safety programme. The most effective
accident and disease prevention begins when work processes are still in the
design stage.
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Note to the
instructor
For this exercise, ask
trainees to work in small groups of two to three people. Give several of the
pictures in your text to each group. You will also need a flipchart (or some
large sheets of paper taped to the walls) and markers or a chalkboard and
chalks.
Instructions
The pictures below show
different workplaces where a variety of hazards can be found. Ask trainees to
look at the pictures and imagine what sort of problems might exist in each
workplace. Write the trainees' responses for each workplace on a flipchart or
chalkboard. Some of the major hazards associated with each of these jobs are
given below.
When you finish discussing
the jobs shown in the pictures, discuss the hazards in the trainees' own
workplaces. Trainees should discuss the questions listed in the section “In you
own workplace” below.
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Discuss the hazards that
may be associated with these jobs
1. Welder — A welder can be
burnt from the sparks and there is always the danger of the work process
starting a fire. There is the problem of the intense light which can cause
permanent eye damage as well as the fumes given off by the process which can
damage the lungs.
2. Mechanic - Depending on
the precise nature of a mechanic's duties, there may be safety problems from
cuts and falls, etc., and exposure to chemical hazards: oils, solvents, asbestos
and exhaust fumes. Mechanics can also have back and other musculoskeletal
problems from lifting heavy parts or bending for long periods.
3. Port worker - Again
hazards depend largely on the nature of the job and in particular the cargo
being handled. Port workers often have no idea of the dangerous nature of the
cargo; there may be a sign on the side of a box or drum, but the information may
not be in their language or in words that make much sense to the average worker.
The condition of the cargo is also important as leaking drums or split bags can
be very hazardous for the handlers. Other risks include falls, cuts, back and
other musculoskeletal problems as well as collisions with fast moving vehicles
such as fork-lift trucks or delivery trucks.
4. Textile worker - The
textile worker faces a variety of problems. First there is the problem of safety
with many machines around that are often unguarded, as well as the risk of fire
with so much combustible material in the workplace. Then there are the hazards
of noise and vibration. There is also exposure to dust from the material which
can seriously affect the lungs. Exposure to cotton dust can lead to the
occupational disease known as byssinosis.
5. Tractor driver - One of
the most serious problems with tractors is that they often overturn and, if they
have no safety cab, the driver can easily be crushed. Other problems include
noise, vibration and exposure to chemical herbicides and pesticides when being
sprayed by tractor.
6. Agricultural worker -
When spraying crops the worker may be exposed to hazardous chemicals contained
in the spray. Many pesticides and herbicides that have been banned in some
countries because of their toxic effects are still used in many developing
countries. If spraying takes place on a windy day, the spray can be breathed
into the lungs and blown on to the skin where it can cause damage. It can also
be absorbed into the body through the skin.
7. Electronics assembly
worker - An electronics assembly worker can suffer eye problems from doing close
work, often in poor light. Because such workers sit still for long periods with
inadequate seating, they can also suffer from back and other musculoskeletal
problems. For some workers there are the dangers of solder fumes or solder
“flecks” in the eye when the excess solder is cut off with pliers.
8. Office worker - Many
people may think that office workers have no health and safety problems; this is
far from true. Stress is one of the most common complaints, as well as exposure
to chemical hazards from office machines such as photocopiers. Poor lighting,
noise and poorly designed chairs and stools can also present problems.
9. Construction worker -
Construction workers face a variety of hazards, particularly safety problems
such as falls, slips, trips, cuts, and being hit by falling objects. There are
also dangers from working high up, often without adequate safety equipment,
musculoskeletal problems from lifting heavy objects, as well as the hazards
associated with exposure to noisy machinery.
10. Miner - The hazards of
mining are well known and include the ever present danger of dusts, fire,
explosion and electrocution, as well as the hazards associated with vibration,
extreme temperatures, noise, slips, falls, cuts, etc.
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