Promoting pollution control THROUGH TIGHT MEASURES

Promoting pollution control

Measure	Expected improvement of air quality and other advantages	Disadvantages	Comments and city examples
Setting priorities by focussing on pollution control devices for the most serious polluting factories	Very effective; city examples have shown that this could solve/reduce the air pollution considerably. Especially if the air pollution is caused by only a few factories.	Guard against 'end-of-pipe' solutions that will transfer the problem from one media to another (e.g. the fly ash from power stations, such as that in Chennai was mixed with water and dumped off the coast). The effectiveness depends very much on proper operations and regular maintenance; enforcement together with commitment of the industries is required. * many developing countries have emission standards. However they are seriously exceeded because the enforcement is weak (no serious penalties), and sometimes industries are not well informed or are not committed to change. Furthermore, there are no regular emission inspections to monitor and control the performance of the industries.	Chennai, India: to control SPM and heavy metals emissions from large thermal plants in populated areas, stacks have been equipped with scrubbers and mechanical dust collectors which have operating efficiencies of about 70 per cent reduction. Electrostatic precipitators can perform with up to 99 per cent efficiency, however they have not been introduced extensively owing to their high costs. Where these have been fitted, they are often poorly maintained, thereby reducing their effectiveness. Katowice, Poland: emissions of SO2 are being reduced through the construction of two installations for the desulfurization of flue gases (FGD) in two major power plants.Lahore, Pakistan: plans to fit emission control equipment on the largest emitters have also been developed, although how quickly and extensively they can be implemented will depend upon the availability of capital. Santiago, Chile: an estimated 90 per cent of SO2 emissions in Chile originate from copper smelting. Clean-up plans were prepared to reduce emissions from this source and they have been introduced in 1996.
Licensing of specified strongly polluting processes			Hong Kong has classified specified processes, emitting significant amounts of air pollution. These include power stations, incinerators, petrochemical works, cement, ceramic, electricity and gas works and mineral plants. Specified processes are strictly licensed. A staged programme of removing the exemptions granted to plants already in operation before 1987 is in progress.
Compulsory emission limits	Emission limits are an essential part of successful air quality management. However effectiveness however depends very much on the enforcement, and on the commitment and available resources of industries.	Requires strict enforcement in order to be effective.	Lahore, Pakistan: the effectiveness of air quality management in Pakistan has been limited in the past by the absence of quantitative emissions limits for which controls could be implemented. However, in 1993, national air quality emission standards for a range of pollutants helped to rectify this problem. In the past, with the absence of statutory standards, the Punjab EPA attempted to reduce emissions through consultations with industry. This resulted in a good relationship between industry and regulator, which should assist the effective operation of the new legislation. Lagos, Nigeria: all industries must have emissions monitoring capabilities or assign responsibility to a consultant approved by the FEPA. As this was a problem for small industries, it was agreed with FEPA, that groups of contiguous industries could borrow or jointly sustain on site pollution units. Industrial emission limits have been established for 37 different pollutants. These limits are, in general, a range of values set in order to take into account the size and nature of the source. However, the air quality hardly improved, as there is no effective enforcement. The inspections of sources occur irregularly owing to limited resources, and there are no emission and monitoring data available. The overall criticism is that the emission limits are imported and inappropriate and irrelevant to the Nigerian situation. Pusan, Korea: the regulations against emissions from industry have been successfully strengthened with a focuses on dust emanating from steel, cement, and coal factories, and from construction and demolition sites); Belo Horizonte, Brazil has established standards to control industrial emissions. If standards are exceeded the company responsible may be given a warning, fined, or even forced to close. However, companies are not policed regarding their actual emission discharges. There are no strategic plans for reducing emissions by industry. Chennai, India: India has an advanced national air quality policy, however there is no information available on the effectiveness of its implementation in Chennai. National regulations exist to control emissions from industry and large power generation plants. Companies are inspected annually to ensure compliance; they are also required to keep records and summary reports of emissions. Exceedances, by degree, can lead to warnings, fines and even plant closures. National plans for reducing emissions from industry include the greater use of available control techniques, substitution of fuels, and process optimisation. Katowice, Poland: well regulated emission controls are available, however hindered by a lack of resources, particularly for emissions monitoring (only some small industries have formal emissions limits set owing to the lack of personnel). Quito, Ecuador: emissions limits exist for stationary sources. These are law and are subject to enforcement. If levels are exceeded above 100 per cent of the maximum permissible value over two consecutive months, a fine can be imposed on the polluting company (or even closure). However industrial exceedances are not routinely measured. Alexandria, Egypt: Industrial emission limits are introduced in 1995 and emission inspections started 3 years later. Chennai, India: difficult to bring emissions from small companies under control owing to resource problems and limited knowledge of their contribution towards total emissions. However they form a serious problem because of the use of inefficient furnaces and boilers and low chimneystacks.
Setting strict fines for the exceedance of emission limits			Katowice, Poland: the fee for releasing of air pollutants is quite substantial (some enterprises pay at a discounted rate to enable them to continue operation; the exemptions should in the medium and long-term be phased out). In 1991, the total amount of fees paid by enterprises for polluting the air was approximately US$40 million. There have been criticisms of the system whereby the moneys raised from pollution fees in Katowice are distributed across Poland, rather than being spent in the area. The high fines encourage power plants and industries to use coal with a low sulfur and ash content. Coal cleaning technologies are also increasingly being applied to reduce emissions from coal. Hong Kong, China: industrial emission controls are rigorously enforced. The inspectors offer advice and where necessary issue legal notices which if ignored, result in legal action. Air pollution prosecutions upon industrial premises are mainly illegal installations and not allowed dark smoke emissions.
Enforcement of best available techniques			Birmingham, UK: Emissions are controlled on the principle of Best Available Techniques. The relevant responsible local authorities that charge fees in order to recover their costs hold public registers of small and medium sized industries. The local authorities are provided with General, Process and Guidance notes covering each of the industrial processes as an aid in setting conditions for authorization. These provide details of what constitutes BATNEEC for each category of process; including details of emission limits and controls, monitoring, sampling and the measurement of emissions. In granting an authorization, the local authority must consider whether the process will preclude compliance with UK and EU Air quality regulations and standards and adhere to other relevant legislation. Comments from members of the public and the ability of the applicant to meet the terms of the authorization are also important.Local authorities are required to institute a programme of site inspections and monitoring to carry out reviews every four years. Failure to obtain or implement the terms of an authorization carries the penalty of an unlimited fine and up to two years imprisonment.In case of major emission sources, The Environmental Protection Act (1990) (EPA) assigned responsibility for controlling emissions to Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) (not the responsibility of local government). Johannesburg, South Africa: Industry operates under the principle of Best Practicable Means (BPM), and limits are set and controls are imposed. The Chief Officer Air Pollution Control provides scheduled processes with a registration certificate. The registration certificate enables the plant to operate and can be withdrawn if it is considered that the BPM is not being met, thus closing the operation. Stack emissions guidelines have also been adopted for different processes and pollutants.
Compulsory notification of accidents			Lagos, Nigeria: Accidental discharges must be reported within 24 hours and contingency plans must have been developed by the operator to deal with such unplanned releases.