Conductivity
Meter
Calibration is akin to
tuning, and just as a musical instrument must be tuned from time-to-time, a
scientific instrument must be properly calibrated to achieve accurate test
results.
Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal
quantity, and measures a material's ability to conduct an electric
current. It is commonly represented by the Greek letter σ
(sigma), but κ (esp. in electrical engineering) or γ
are also occasionally used. Its SI unit is siemens
per metre
(S·m−1) and CGSE unit is reciprocal second
(s−1):
Operating Instructions
Before
use, soak the conductivity electrode in distilled or deionized water for 5 to
10 minutes. Connect the conductivity cell to the conductivity meter and follow
the meter manual instructions for standardizing the cell for use at a given
temperature. Rinse the conductivity cell sensing elements with distilled or
deionized water between samples. Note: Each conductivity cell has a cell
constant which is predetermined by the manufacturer and often indicated on the
electrode upon shipment. The cell constant may change slightly during shipping
and storage and should be remeasured on the user's conductivity meter before
initial use. Measure the cell constant according to the meter instruction
manual. Because temperature has a large effect on conductivity measurements
allow probe to sit in solution until a stable temperature reading is obtained
before taking measurements.
Reasons for varied readings include:
Ions:
The nature of charged
positive ions (which is what the TDS meters are measuring) is that they are
always moving. Therefore, there may always be variances in the conductivity,
and thus a different reading.
Temperature:
Even with ATC, temperature
changes by a tenth of a degree may increase or decrease the conductivity.
Additionally, the temperature coefficient (what the reading is multiplied by to
adjust for temperature differences) changes slightly depending upon the range
of ppm.
Air bubbles:
Even a tiny air bubble that
has adhered to one of the probes could potentially affect the conductivity, and
thus the reading.
Lingering electrical
charges:
Electrical charges off
fingers, static eletricity off clothes, etc. on the meter and lingering
electrical charges in the water will affect the conductivity of the water.
Beaker/cup material:
Plastic cups retain
lingering electrical charges more than glass. If the meter touches the side of
the glass or plastic, it could pick up a slight charge. If the plastic is
retaining a charge, it could also affect the water.
Volume changes:
The amount of water in the
sample may affect the conductivity. Different volumes of the same water may
have different levels of conductivity. Displacement may affect the conductivity
as well.
Probe positioning:
The depth and position of
the probe in the water sample may also affect the conductivity. For example, if
a meter is dipped into the water, removed and then dipped into the water again,
but in a different spot, the reading may change.
How can I get the best
possible readings?
Shake:
Always make sure to shake
excess water off the meter before dipping it into a water sample, even if it's
the same water.
Stir/tap:
After dipping the meter in
the water, always lightly tap it against the side and stir the meter to remove
any lingering air bubbles or electrical charges.
Positioning:
When taking the reading,
always make sure to hold the meter straight up without it touching the sides or
bottom of the glass/beaker/cup. The probes should be suspended as close to the
center of the water sample as possible.
Time:
The longer the meter is in
the water, the more accurate the reading will be.
Temperature:
25 degrees Celsius is the
ideal temperature for conductivity readings, even if the meter has ATC.
Rinse:
If switching between very
low and very high ppm water, always rinse the probes with distilled water to
avoid any build-up.
KCl:
Potassium Chloride is the
international standard to calibrate instruments that measure conductivity. The
COM-100 is factory calibrated with a 1413 microsiemens solution is the default
mode is EC-KCl. The KCl conversion
factor is 0.5-0.57.
Is "EC" a parameter
or a scale?
“EC” is a parameter. It
stands for Electrical Conductivity. There are a number of scales used in EC,
most commonly micro-Siemens (µS) or milli-Siemens (mS). For example, if
a particular application calls for water with “2.0 EC,” this is an incorrect
determination. Most likely, the application is calling for an EC level of 2.0
mS. 2.0 mS = 2000 µS.
What's that little µ symbol
on my EC meter?
The symbol 'µ' is
not a lowercase U, but the Greek letter Mu.
It is the abbreviation for micro, and when used with an S (µS) it
stands for mirco-Siemens, which is a scale used for measuring EC.
How do I convert from EC (µS)
to TDS (ppm)?
The best thing to do is use
a TDS meter, which will automatically do the conversion. EC meters do not use conversion factors
because there is no conversion. To
convert to TDS, if you do not wish to use a TDS meter, you will need to
determine which conversion factor you want to use (NaCl, 442 or KCl) and do the
math.
Units of Conductivity
The units of measurement used to describe
conductivity and resistivity are quite fundamental and are frequently misused.
Once the units are known, various waters can be quantitatively described.
The basic unit of resistance is the familiar
ohm. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, and its basic unit is the
siemens, formerly called mho. In discussions of bulk material, it is convenient
to talk of its specific conductance, now commonly called its conductivity. This
is the conductance as measured between the opposite faces of a 1-cm cube of the
material. This measurement has units of siemens/cm. The units microsiemens/cm (μS/cm)
and millisiemens/cm (mS/cm) are most commonly used to describe the conductivity
of aqueous solutions. The corresponding terms for specific resistance (or
resistivity) are ohm-cm (Ω-cm), megaohm-cm (MΩ -cm) and kilohm-cm (kΩ -cm).
Users of ultra-pure water prefer to use
resistivity units of Ω-cm, because measurement in these units tends to spread
the scale out in the range of interest. These same users frequently use k -cm
when dealing with less pure water such as tap water. Others, however, use the units
of μS/cm and mS/cm when dealing with any stream from quite pure to very
concentrated chemical solutions. In these applications, the use of conductivity
has the advantage of an almost direct relationship with impurities, especially
at low concentration. Hence, a rising conductivity reading shows increasing
impurities, or a generally increasing concentration in the case of a chemical
stream (with some exceptions in concentrated solutions). See Table 1 for a
comparison of resistance and conductivity.
TABLE 1
SPECIFIC
CONDUCTANCE MICROMHO/CM* |
SPECIFIC
RESISTANCE MEGOHM-CM* |
|
GR. / GAL.
As CaCO3 |
||||||||
.055
.056 .063 .071 .083 .100 .500 1.000 10.000 80.000 625.000 10,000.000 |
18.240
18.000 16.000 14.000 12.000 10.000 2.000 1.000 .100 .0125 .0016 .0001 |
NONE
.036 .041 .046 .054 .065 .325 .650 6.500 52.000 406.250 6,500.000 |
NONE
.028 .031 .036 .042 .050 .250 .500 5.000 40.000 312.500 5,000.000 |
NONE
.022 .025 .029 .033 .040 .200 .400 4.000 32.000 250.000 4,000.000 |
NONE
.002 .002 .002 .002 .003 .015 .029 .292 2.340 18.273 292.398 |
||||||
*
|
At 25oC
|
**
|
At 25oC given
specific conductance values included in this table.
|
TABLE 2
CONDUCTIVITY / RESISTIVITY / TDS CONVERSIONS
CONDUCTIVITY / RESISTIVITY / TDS CONVERSIONS
CONDUCTIVITY (MICROMHOS-CM)
|
RESISTIVITY (OHMS-CM)
|
DISSOLVED SOLIDS (PPM)
|
.056
|
18,000,000
|
.0277
|
.084
|
12,000,000
|
.0417
|
.167
|
6,000,000
|
.0833
|
1.00
|
1,000,000
|
.500
|
2.50
|
400,000
|
1.25
|
20.0
|
50,000
|
10.0
|
200
|
5,000
|
100
|
2000
|
500
|
1,000
|
20,000
|
50
|
10,000
|
Note: ppm x 2 = conductivity
Table 3 below lists the increasing conductivity
of different types of solutions.
TABLE 3
CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AT 25oC
CONDUCTIVITY OF VARIOUS AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AT 25oC
Application
|
Conductivity
|
Resistivity
|
Pure water
|
0.05 μS/cm
|
18 MΩ-cm
|
Power plant boiler water
|
0.05-1 μS/cm
|
1-18 MΩ-cm
|
Distilled water
|
0.5 μS/cm
|
2 MΩ-cm
|
Deionized water
|
0.1-10 μS/cm
|
0.1-10 MΩ-cm
|
Demineralized water
|
1-80 μS/cm
|
0.01-1 MΩ-cm
|
Mountain water
|
10 μS/cm
|
0.1 MΩ-cm
|
Drinking water
|
0.5-1 mS/cm
|
1-2 kΩ-cm
|
Wastewater
|
0.9-9 mS/cm
|
0.1-1 kΩ-cm
|
KCl solution (0.01 M)
|
1.4 mS/cm
|
0.7 kΩ-cm
|
Potable water maximum
|
1.5 mS/cm
|
0.7 kΩ-cm
|
Brackish water
|
1-80 mS/cm
|
0.01-1 kΩ-cm
|
Industrial process water
|
7-140 mS/cm
|
rarely stated
|
Ocean water
|
53 mS/cm
|
rarely stated
|
10% NaOH
|
355 mS/cm
|
rarely stated
|
10% H2SO4
|
432 mS/cm
|
rarely stated
|
31% HNO3
|
865 mS/cm
|
rarely stated
|
Temperature effects
Conductivity has a substantial dependence on
temperature. This dependence is usually expressed as percent / oC at
25oC. Ultrapure water has the largest dependence on temperature, at
5.2% / oC. Ionic salts run about 2% / oC, with acids,
alkalis, and concentrated salts solutions are around 1.5% / oC.
Temperature variation causes frequent problems with conductivity measurements
when the solution under testing has a rapid varying temperature. The change in
conductivity is instantaneous, since it is an electrical measurement. The
thermistor, however, has a response time of 15 seconds to several minutes. A
good rule of thumb is to allow 5 times the time it takes for the thermistor to
respond to allow the reading to stabilize. Any sudden dips or peaks should be
ignored during this time.
Conductivity Electrodes
(Cells)
Simple conductivity sensors are constructed of
an insulating material imbedded with platinum, graphite, stainless steel or
other metallic pieces. These metal contacts serve as sensing elements and are
placed at a fixed distance apart to make contact with a solution whose
conductivity is to be determined. The length between the sensing elements, as
well as the surface area of the metallic piece, determine the electrode cell
constant, defined as length/area. The cell constant is a critical parameter
affecting the conductance value produced by the cell and handled by the
electronic circuitry.
A cell constant of 1.0 will produce a
conductance reading approximately equal to the solution conductivity. For
solutions of low conductivity, the sensing electrodes can be placed closer
together, reducing the length between them and producing cell constants of 0.1
or 0.01. This will raise the conductance reading by a factor of 10 to 100 to
offset the low solution conductivity and give a better signal to the
conductivity meter. On the other hand, the sensing electrodes can be placed
farther apart to create cell constants of 10 or 100 for use in highly
conductive solutions. This also produces a conductance acceptable to the meter
by reducing the conductance reading by a factor of 10 to 100.
In order to produce a measuring signal
acceptable to the conductivity meter, it is highly important that the user
choose a conductivity electrode with a cell constant appropriate for his
sample. The table below lists the optimum conductivity range for cells with
different cell constants.
Cell Constant
|
Optimum Conductivity Range
|
0.01
|
0.055 - 20 μS/cm
|
0.1
|
0.5 - 200 μS/cm
|
1.0
|
0.01 - 2 mS/cm
|
10.0
|
1 - 200 mS/cm
|
Effects of polarization
When a
DC voltage is applied across the electrodes of a conductivity cell, the ions
present in solution will be discharged onto the electrodes and by surrendering
or accepting electrons, be changed into molecular form. The flow of ions will
then virtually cease within a very short time, and consequently, the current
will decrease to virtually zero. Therefore, an AC voltage is used for
conductivity measurements. Polarization, however, can still actually take place
during a half cycle of one polarity, causing a space charge buildup around the
electrodes, resulting in a loss of current flow. In addition to polarization
effects, conductivity cells with higher cell constants require long, narrow
passages to obtain these constants, which make the electrode contacts more
susceptible to coating by oils, slurries, or sludges commonly found in streams
of high conductivity.
Platinization
Platinization, or depositing a layer of black platinum on
the electrode cells, results in a decreased polarization resistance. The
platinum black catalyzes the electrochemical reaction rate, reducing the
current density on the electrode cells and the reduction overvoltage for H+
ions.
How 4 cell conductivity probe eliminates
polarization and contact coating effects
The 4
cell conductivity probe consists of 4 bands along a measuring column or sets of
concentric rings opposite each other. An AC voltage is applied across the two
outermost bands, which causes a current flow through the measuring cell.
Located between this pair of electrodes is a second pair of bands. These bands
measure the voltage generated across the liquid . The measured voltage across
the outer bands is compared with the voltage measured by the inner bands. Any
difference between the measured voltages of the two pairs of bands (whether the
conductivity of the solution changes, or changes due to polarization or coating
effects) initiates correcting action for the voltage across the outer bands.
The correcting action remains until the current through the cell will generate
a voltage across the outer bands which equals the voltage between the inner
bands. Therefore, the four-band conductivity cell can correct for any fouling
or polarization which may occur.
Choice of Conductivity Cell Design: 2-Cell
or 4-Cell?
How 2-Cell and
4-Cell Electrodes Compare
2-Cell Electrodes
Offer:
|
4-Cell Electrodes Offer:
|
Reduced cost of purchase and easy maintenance
Direct access to cell plates facilitates cleaning. |
Improved accuracy over a
wide range
The improved circuitry eliminates error due to polarization effect. Analysts achieve accurate calibration with just one standard. |
Compatibility with sample changers
Applications requiring a sampler changer will do better with a 2-electrode cell, which requires minimal insertion depth - allowing quick readings. |
Flexibility for high or low
range measurement
One cell and one calibration provides testing capability over several decades of conductivity. |
Limitation of
2-Cell Electrodes:
|
Limitation of 4-Cell Electrodes:
|
Measurement Range
Accurate conductivity measurement range tops out at about 50 mS/cm. |
Critical Minimum Immersion
Depth
Minimum immersion depth is 3 to 4 cm. |
Cleaning
The single most important requirement of accurate and
reproducible results in conductivity measurement is a clean cell. A dirty cell
will contaminate the solution and cause the conductivity to change. Grease,
oil, fingerprints, and other contaminants on the sensing elements can cause
erroneous measurements and sporadic responses.
Cleaning Methods
For most
applications, hot water with domestic cleaning detergent can be used for
cleaning.
1. For lime and other hydroxide containing solutions, clean with a
5-10% solution of hydrochloric acid.
2. For solutions containing organic fouling agents (fats, oils,
etc.), clean probe with acetone.
3. For algae and bacteria containing solutions, clean probe with a
bleach containing liquid.
Clean cells by dipping or filling the cell with cleaning
solution and agitating for two or three minutes. When a stronger cleaning
solution is required, try concentrated hydrochloric acid mixed into 50%
isopropanol. Rinse the cell several times with distilled or deionized water and
remeasure the cell constant before use.
Storage
It is best to store
cells so that the electrodes are immersed in deionized water. Any cell that has
been stored dry should be soaked in distilled water for 5 to 10 minutes before
use to assure complete wetting of the electrodes.
Some platinum conductivity cells are coated with platinum
black before calibration. This coating is extremely important to cell
operation, especially in solutions of high conductivity. Electrodes are
platinized to avoid errors due to polarization. Cells should be inspected
periodically and after each cleaning. If the black coating appears to be
wearing or flaking off the electrodes or if the cell constant has changed by 50%,
the cell should be cleaned and the electrodes replatinized.
Replatinizing
The platinum electrode should first be cleaned
thoroughly in aqua regia being careful not to dissolve the platinum. If the
cell remains too long in aqua regia the platinum elements will dissolve
completely. Prepare a solution of 0.025 N HCl with 3% chloroplatinic acid (H2PtCl6)
and 0.025% lead acetate. Connect the cell to a rheostat or 3-4 V battery to
which a variable resistor has been connected. Immerse cell in the chloroplatinic
acid solution and electrolyze at 10 mA/cm for 10-15 minutes. Reverse the
polarity to the cell every 30 seconds until both electrodes are covered with a
thin black layer. Disconnect the cell and save the platinizing solution. It may
be reused many times and should not be discarded as it is expensive to make.
Rinse the electrode with tap water for 1 to 2 minutes, followed by distilled or
deionized water. Store in distilled or deionized water until ready for use.
Dr.A.N.Giri
("Many Species: One Planet ,One Future)
.
.
Nice blog very informative...
ReplyDeleteThanks for sharing...
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